I. ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY 1. The alphabet Form Name Value A a a French a in avoir B b be b C c ce j in jam C+ C Ce ch in church D d de d E e e French e= in e=tre F f fe f G g ge g in gate or in angular G G yumuSak ge lengthens preceding vowel H h he h in have I i i a in serial I+ : : French i in si J j je French j K k ke c in cat or in cure L l le l in list or in wool M m me m N n ne n O o o English caught O+ 0 0 German 0 P p pe p S s se s in sit S+ S Se sh in shape T t te t U u u English book U+ U U German u V v ve v Y y ye y in yet YumuSak ge (`soft g') cannot begin a word. Note that the capital form of the dotted : is also dotted. The letter k is often called ka instead of ke; less often, h is called ha. 2. The apostrophe. In addition to these twenty-nine letters, two orthographic signs are used in the writing of Turkish. The apostrophe ('), known as kesme :Saret:, is used: (a) To mark the glottal stop in Arabic borrowings. (b) To separate proper nouns, or words specially emphasized, from grammatical endings: AtatUrk'ten `from AtatUrk'; An- kara'da `in Ankara'; vec:zem:z, halka h:zmet't:r "our slogan is ``service to the people'' ". It is thus regularly used before the case- suffixes of the third-person pronoun o when this is written with a capital letter as a mark of respect, the normal practice when writing of AtatUrk and other great men (though not usually of Allah): O'nun `His'; O'na `to Him'. (c) To distinguish between homonyms: karin `stomach', kar'in `of snow', kari'n `your wife'; halk oyunu `folk-dance', halk oyu'nu `referendum' (acc.). It occurs in some surnames com- pounded of two words: O'kan `that blood', which might other- wise be read as ok-an `arrow-intellect'; I+S'er `work-man', which without the apostrophe could be mistaken for the aorist participle of :Semek `to urinate'. (d) To mark the omission of a letter, as in n'olacak for ne olacak `what will happen?' 3. The circumflex accent (^), known as dUzeltme :Saret:, is used primarily to indicate the palatalizing of a preceding g, k, or l and secondarily to mark a long vowel in Arabic borrowings, especially where ambiguity might otherwise arise: nar ~ Persian na**r `pomegranate' but na=r ~ Arabic na**r `hell-fire'; ad:l `justice' but a=d:l `just'; tar:h: `history' (acc.) but tar:hi= `historical'. This rule is neglected in masculine names ending in the Arabic adjectival suffix -i**, because the final vowel is nowadays pronounced short: Bedr:, Rahm:, Ruh:. The original vowel length and conse- quently the spelling with the circumflex are retained in pen-names of classical authors: Nef'i=, Fuzuli=. 4. Consonants: general observations. Native words do not, as a rule, begin with c, f, j, l, m, n, r, or z. The only notable excep- tions, apart from onomatopoeic words, are the verbs caymak `to swerve' and coSmak `to overflow'; the interrogative particle m:; and ne `what?' See also XIV, 46. j occurs only in foreign words and is often replaced by c in popular speech. A vowel is often inserted before l, r, and n when they occur initially in foreign words: :l:mon for l:mon `lemon', :rahmet or irahmet for rahmet `divine mercy, rain', :nefes for nefes `breath' (especially used of breathing on someone for magical purposes). Some such pronunciations have become part of the written language: orospu `harlot' ~ Persian ru**spi**, oruC `fasting' ~ Persian roza. The consonants b, c, and g do not occur finally in native words. 5. b, p. The voiced labial is pronounced as in English, but p is less heavily aspirated than English p. 6. C. In rapid speech the first of two adjacent C's is often heard as t: kaC Cocuk `how many children?' pronounced as if written kat Cocuk. 7. d, t, n. In English these letters are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching the gums above the top teeth. In Turkish they are true dentals, the tongue touching the top teeth. Modern n may represent an older n[M==ngma?], e.g. in yen: `new' and sonra `after'. The n of the latter word is frequently dropped in speech and sometimes in writing. 8. f, v. The pronunciation is lighter than that of the corresponding English consonants, particularly in the case of intervocalic v, which is heard as a weak w: tavuk `hen' is pronounced tawuk and popularly misspelt tauk. The personal and local name Mustafa Bey is generally pronounced Musta**bey or Mista**bey. 9. g, k. In conjunction with any of the back vowels a,i, o, and u, these are pronounced as in gate and kale respectively: kizgin `excited', karga `crow'. With the front vowels e, :, 0, and U they are palatalized like English g in angular and c in cure respectively: gerCek `true' pronounced gyercheky; kes:k `cut' pronounced kyesiky; k0Sk `palace' pronounced ky0shky. The palatalization of the initial k is responsible for the i in the English form of this last example, kiosk. In some Arabic and Persian borrowings, however, g and k are also palatalized in conjunction with a and u. It is in such cases that the circumflex is used: ga=vur `infidel' pronounced gyawur (hence the i in the old-established English spelling giaour; cf. Kiazim, the usual English transcription of the name Ka=zim); mahku=m `condemned', ka=bus `nightmare', pronounced mah- kyum, kya**bu**s. The circumflex in these words is solely to indicate palatalization and has nothing to do with vowel length. Some inconsistency arises from the fact that k may stand for both the Arabo-Persian ? and ? (respectively k and q in English transliteration). The second of these letters represents a k articu- lated at the uvula, the nearest English counterpart being the sound of c in cough. Further, initial g may represent Persian g or Arabic gh. In the combinations ga < gha** and ka < qa**, the circumflex cannot be used to show that the vowel is long because it would be taken rather as showing--falsely--that the g or k is palatalized. To avoid ambiguity in such cases, the length of the a is shown by writing it twice: kat:l `murder' but kaat:l `murderer'. This device is regularly employed only in kaat:l but may be met with also in gaamiz `obscure', gaasip `usurper', kaabiz `astringent', kaab:le `midwife', kaad:r `mighty', and kaan: `convinced', all of which are more usually spelt with a single a. Another complication arises from the fact that it is no more natural for Turks than for English-speakers to pronounce a back consonant with a front vowel; e.g. if one tries to pronounce king with the initial consonant of cough the resulting sound is as much un-Turkish as it is un-English. Consequently Arabic qi is tran- scribed as ki, while qi** (written qiy in Arabic letters) ought to be transcribed as kiy. In fact, however, although Arabic qi**mat- `value' appears as kiymet, in other Arabic borrowings in which q is followed by long i, such as @aqi**qat- `truth' and ta@qi**r `con- tempt', the convention is to use dotted :: hak:kat, tahk:r. The phonetic spelling hakiykat, occasionally seen in the early years of the new alphabet, is no longer in general use. In most Anatolian dialects initial k is pronounced as g, medial and final k as the velar fricative kh, the sound heard in German ach. So korkma `do not fear' may be heard as gorkhma, Cok `much' as chokh. In standard Turkish the g of gal:ba `pre- sumably' is often pronounced as k. 10. G. YumuSak ge is a concession to the traditional spelling of Turkish in the Arabo-Persian alphabet. It represents two separate letters of that alphabet, g and gh. The latter represents the voiced velar fricative, the gargling sound of the Parisian or Tynesider's r, the `Northumbrian burr'. Arabic initial gh becomes g: gha**zi** `warrior for the Faith' > gaz: ; gha**fil `heedless' > gaf:l. Medial or final gh becomes G: maghfu**r `forgiven' > maGfur; tabli**gh `communication' > tebl:G. This G, whether in borrowings or in native words, though audible as a `Northumbrian burr' of varying intensity in dialect, serves in standard Turkish to lengthen the preceding vowel, a following vowel being swallowed up. Thus g:deceG:m `I shall go' is pronounced as gideje**m; alacaGiz `we shall take' as alaja**z; aGir `heavy' as a**r; aGiz `mouth' as a**z; aGa `master, landowner' as a**. Note particularly aGabey `elder brother', pronounced a**bi** ; BoGaz:C: `Bosphorus' pronounced Boazichi or Ba**zichi. Between o and a or o and u,it may be heard as a weak v or w: soGan `onion', soGuk `cold'. The verbs koGmak `to chase away', oGmak `to rub', oGalamak `to crumble', are pro- nounced and sometimes spelled kovmak, ovmak, ovalamak (also uvalamak). The same phenomenon occurs after 0 in: 0Gmek `to praise', d0Gmek `to beat', s0Gmek `to curse', g0Germek 'to become blue', 0GUn 'portion, 0GUr 'accustomed' also spelled 0vmek, d0vmek, s0vmek, g0vermek, 0vUn, 0vUr. Otherwise, G in conjunction with front vowels is heard as a weak y: 0Gle `noon', deGer `worth'. In two common Persian borrowings, d:Ger `other' and eGer `if', the original hard g is sometimes heard instead of y, but never in meGer `apparently'. deG:l `not' is pronounced deyil, deil, or, rather preciously, di**l. Intervocalic k regularly becomes G: ayak `foot' +im `my' > ayaGim `my foot'. 11. h. In conjunction with any of the narrow vowels i, :, u, U, particularly when it ends a syllable, h is sometimes pronounced more heavily than otherwise, like the Arabic pharyngal unvoiced fricative @ : mih `nail', ihlamur `lime-tree', hiyar `cucumber', :ht:yar `aged', ruh `soul'. This is not due, as some Arabists suppose, to a memory of the spelling of such words in the Arabo-Persian alphabet; it is a popular and not a learned pro- nunciation. The h in the common masculine name Mehmet is silent in standard Turkish, there being a compensatory lengthening of the first vowel. The spelling and pronunciation Muhammed are reserved for the name of the Prophet, while the intermediate stage Mehemmed is used in scholarly works for sultans of the name. In some regional dialects the h is pronounced in Mehmet but is silent in Ahmet, with a compensatory lengthening of the first vowel. The h of the name Ethem is also liable to be lost in pronunciation. The final h of sah:h `correct' is dropped in writing as well as speech when it is used as an adverb meaning `really'; in speech the first h is sometimes dropped too. In slipshod speech intervocalic h is sometimes dropped together with its preceding vowel, so muhafaza `protection' may be heard as ma**faza. Allah aSkina `for the love of God !' is pronounced as one word without the ah. The expletive Allahini seversen `if you love your God, for Heaven's sake' is even further contracted, to alla**sen. The h of hanim `lady' regularly disappears, together with the preceding vowel, when following a name ending in e or a : Ulv:ye hanim. Fatma hanim are pronounced ulviya**nim, fatma**nim. So too in Persian borrowings compounded with kha**ne `house': postahane `post office', hastahane `hospital', eczahane `chemist's shop' are nowadays spelt and pronounced postane, hastane, eczane, all with long a in the middle syllable. English-speaking students must take care not to mispronounce the letter-combinations ph, sh, and th: e.g. ph in kUtUphane `library' is pronounced as in uphill; sh in I+shak `Isaac' as in mishap; th in methetmek `to praise' as in nuthatch. 12. l. As in English, this letter represents two totally different sounds, the `clear l' of list and the `dark l' of wool. Clear l is formed towards the front of the mouth and is naturally produced in conjunction with the front vowels, while dark l, formed in the hollow of the palate, comes naturally with back vowels. Thus we find clear l in yel `wind' and k0le `slave', dark l in yil `year' and yol `way'. In foreign borrowings, however, a complication arises, such as we have met in considering g and k. In Arabic, l is clear except in the name of God, Alla**h. In French it is always clear. In borrowings from these languages, l should be pronounced clear even when in conjunction with back vowels and, as with g and k, the circumflex is used as a reminder of this. Thus the l of la=zim `necessary' and pla=n `plan' is pronounced as in list not as in lad, a faint y after it. The y-sound is not so marked as in the English pronunciation of lurid, but is quite audible; in Turkish spelling, the English and American pronunciations of this word would be shown as lu=rid and lurid respectively. It cannot be overemphasized that the primary function of the circumflex is to indicate palataliza- tion and not vowel length; e.g. in mUtala=a `observation' the first and not the second a is long. The latest impression of YI+K recommends that the circumflex should be written over an a following an l in Arabic and Persian borrowings but not in western borrowings, and then only when the vowel was long in Arabic or Persian; thus mUtalaa and plan, but la=zim `necessary', ala=y:S `showiness'. 13. r. Turkish r is an alveolar, produced by the vibration of the tip of the tongue against the gums just above the top teeth. In the Rumelian dialects it is trilled, a practice to avoid. Finally it may be heard as a fricative, accompanied by a heavy aspiration, not unlike the sound of Welsh rh; this pronunciation is most com- monly observable in var `there is'. 14. y. Following a front vowel and preceding a consonant, y is barely audible but lengthens the preceding vowel: teyze `maternal aunt', 0yle `thus'. 15. The glottal stop. This is not native to Turkish but occurs in Arabic borrowings. It is the sound which replaces the t in the Cockney and Glasgow pronunciations of, for example, Saturday and which occurs in standard English between a final and an initial vowel; the glottal stop is what makes the difference in pronunciation between siesta and see Esther. In Turkish it may be primary, standing for an original Arabic glottal stop (hamza), or secondary, standing for "ayn. The latter is a voiced pharyngal gulp; to produce it, students of Arabic are sometimes told to sing as far down the scale as they can and then one note lower. It is as difficult for Turks as for other non-Arabs. The glottal stop, both primary and secondary, is preserved in spelling: (a) To avoid ambiguity: tel:n `of the wire' (gen. of tel) but tel':n `denunciation' (Arabic tal"i**n); kura `villages' (Arabic qura**) but kur'a `conscription by lot' (Arabic qur'a). (b) In high style, out of respect for the traditional Arabic spelling particularly of religious terms: Ser'i= `pertaining to the sacred law' (shar"i**), Kur'an `the Koran' (Qur'a**n). It is preserved in pronunciation but not in writing when intervocalic, as in mUdafaa `defence' (muda**fa"a), teessUf `regret' (ta'assuf). Otherwise, the modern practice is to omit the apostrophe in writing and to neglect the glottal stop in speaking: sanat `art' ($an"at-), memur `official' (ma'mu**r), mesele `problem' (mas'alat-). If the glottal stop is heard it is because the speaker is elderly, pedantic, or speaking slowly and deliberately. 16. Doubled consonants. These are not pronounced separately, but their enunciation is spread over a longer time than that of a single consonant: bati `west' but batti `it sank'; el: `his hand' but ell: `fifty'; g:tt: m: `did he go?' but g:tt:m m: `did I go?' The final consonant of the accented syllable of interjections is sometimes doubled: yazik or yazzik `a pity !', bravo or bravvo `well done!' Similarly o saat `straight away', the o being ac- cented, is regularly pronounced with a doubled s, though not so spelt. Doubled final consonants in Arabic borrowings are simplified into a single consonant, except when the addition of a suffix consisting of or beginning with a vowel makes the doubled con- sonant pronounceable: @aqq `right' > hak, acc. hakki; @add `limit' > had, acc. hadd:; kull `totality' > kUl, acc. kUllU. `afw `pardon' > af, acc. affi, with the original w assimilated to the f. The doubled s is lost in tama**ss `contact' > temas, acc. usually temasi, pedantically temas:. 17. Consonant-clusters and epenthetic vowels. Two consonants never occur together at the beginning of native words, if we except the colloquial brakmak for birakmak `to leave'. Within a word, it is rare to find more than two consonants adjoining. When consonant-clusters occur in foreign borrowings they are simplified by the addition of a vowel (a) before, or (b) within an initial cluster, or (c) within a final cluster: (a) French station > istasyon; statistique > :stat:st:k; splendide > :sp:la=nd:t (name of an apartment-building in Istanbul). Italian scala > :skele `quay'; sgombro > uskumru `mackerel'; spirito > :sp:rto `alcohol'. English screw > uskur; steam > :st:m or :sl:m. (b) German Schlepp > S:lep `cargo-boat'; Groschen > kuruS `piastre'. English train > t:ren. French sport > sipor; club > kulUp; classeur > kila=s0r `file'. The tendency among the educated is towards dispensing with such epenthetic vowels in initial clusters. The time-honoured kuruS and S:lep have no alternative forms, but tren is used side by side with t:ren, klUp with kulUp, kla=s0r with kila=s0r. (c) Numerous borrowed nouns end in two consonants, which Turks have difficulty in pronouncing unless the first is l or r or unless a vowel is suffixed: Arabic ism `name' > :s:m acc :sm:. "adl `justice' > ad:l, acc. adl:; qism `part' > kisim, acc. kismi; "aql `intelligence' > akil, acc. akli; matn `text' > met:n, acc. metn:; "umr `life' > 0mUr, acc. 0mrU; fikr `thought' > f:k:r, acc. f:kr:. Persian shahr `city' > Seh:r, acc. Sehr:. Some borrowings of this shape, however, retain the epenthetic vowel even when a vowel is suffixed: Arabic $inf `class' > sinif, acc. sinifi; sa&r `line' > satir, acc. satiri; shi"r `poetry' > S::r, acc. S::r:. Persian zahr `poison' > zeh:r, acc. zeh:r:; tukhm `seed' > tohum, acc. tohumu. Presumably the retention of the vowel was originally a vulgarism. There are signs that the number of such words is on the increase; particularly frequent in news- papers is Seh:re instead of Sehre for the dative of Seh:r. Conversely, some native words ending in consonant-vowel- consonant drop the original vowel when a vowel is suffixed: oGul `son', acc. oGlu ; bey:n `brain', acc. beyn:. 18. Foreign diphthongs. The Arabic ai diphthong, written ay, is treated in Turkish as consisting of vowel-consonant. It may appear as ay or ey; in either event an epenthetic vowel appears before a following consonant unless that consonant is followed by a vowel: khayr `good' > hayir, acc. hayri; iusayn (masculine name) > HUsey:n, acc. HUseyn:; meyl `tendency' > mey:l, acc. meyl:. Exception: the Arabic dual ending -ayn > -eyn, with no epenthetic vowel. The Arabic au diphthong, written aw, similarly appears as av or ev, the former generally taking an epenthetic vowel: qawm `people' > kav:m; qawl `word' > kav:l `agreement'; qaws `bow' > kav:s; @aw| `pool' > havuz; the accusatives being kavm:, kavl:, kavs:, but havuzu. Two English sporting terms, foul and round, appear as favl and ravnt, with no epenthetic vowel, the v being pronounced as a semivowel. The combination ev-consonant generally has no epenthetic vowel: mawt `death' > mevt; sawq `driving' > sevk; shawq `desire' > Sevk; dhawq `taste' > zevk. Exceptions: jawr `tyranny' > cev:r, acc. cevr:; jawz `walnut' > cev:z, acc. cev:z:; naw" `sort' > nev: (for nev:'), acc. nev':. 19. Alternation of consonants. k/G. Final postvocalic k in poly- syllabic substantives becomes G when a vowel is added: ayak `foot', acc. ayaGi; ekmek `bread', acc. ekmeG: ; sokak `street' (< Arabic zuqa**q), acc. sokaGi; elektr:k `electricity', acc. elektr:G:; traf:k `traffic, traffic-police', acc. traf:G:. A few monosyllables exhibit the same phenomenon: Cok `much', acc. CoGu; g0k `sky', acc. g0GU as well as g0kU. Most, however, follow the pattern of k0k `root', acc. k0kU, and dok `dock, ware- house' (English through French), acc. doku. g/k. Final postconsonantal g in foreign borrowings (cf. #4, end) becomes k but reappears if a vowel is added: Persian rang `colour' > renk, acc. reng:; a**hang `harmony' > ahenk, acc. aheng:. In borrowings from western languages the g is usually retained in writing but pronounced as k except by the learned: kl:r:ng `clearing' (a financial term), m:t:ng `political meeting'. g/G. Final postvocalic g, vulgarly pronounced k, changes to G before an added vowel: katalog `catalogue', acc. kataloGu; jeolog `geologist', acc. jeoloGu or jeolog'u, depending on the extent to which the user of the word regards it as a naturalized part of his vocabulary. In the latter example, as in the next, the apostrophe does not mark a glottal stop but preserves the original g from the usual intervocalic change to G. l:g `football league', acc. l:g: or l:g':; the colloquial form, however, is l:k, acc. l:k:. b/p, c/C, d/t. An original b, c (i.e. Arabic or Persian j), or d becomes p, C, or t at the end of most polysyllabic borrowings and some monosyllabic, but reappears before a vowel: Arabic kita**b `book' > k:tap, acc. k:tabi; i@tiya**j `need' > :ht:yaC, acc. :ht:yaci; Persian ta**j `crown' > taC, acc. taci; da**ma**d `son-in- law' > damat, acc. damadi; French serenade > serenat, acc. serenadi. Final p, C, and t are voiced before vowels into b, c, and d, regularly in polysyllables, occasionally in monosyllables: d:p `bottom', acc. d:b: ; aGaC `tree', acc. aGaci; Arabic shari**& `tape' > Ser:t, acc. Ser:d: ; French groupe > grup, acc. grubu ; principe `principle' > prens:p, acc. prens:b: (the accusatives grupu, prens:p: are pedantic). Care must be taken not to confuse at `horse', acc. ati, with ad `name', acc. adi, or ot `grass', acc. otu, with the archaic od `fire', acc. odu. A few verb-stems change final t to d when a vowel is added, e.g. et- `to do', aorist eder; g:t- `to go', aorist g:der; gUt- ` to pasture', aorist gUder. Final p and t may arise from a doubled final b and d in Arabic borrowings. When a vowel is added, the original voiced double consonant reappears: mu@ibb `friend' > muh:p, acc. muh:bb:; radd `rejection' > ret, acc. redd:. There is no current example of the change from jj to C; @ajj `pilgrimage' becomes hac, acc. hacci, thus avoiding confusion with haC `crucifix', acc. haCi (< Armenian khach). The original voiced consonant is similarly preserved in had `limit' (#16, last paragraph), which is thus distinguished from hat `line', acc. hatti (< Arabic kha&&). The normal unvoicing occurs, however, in serhat `frontier' (< Persian sar `head, chief'-Arabic @add `limit'), acc, serhadd:. In foreign words which have become part of popular speech the original voiced consonant does not reappear before a vowel: Arabic @abb `pill' > hap, acc. hapi; French tube > tUp, acc. tUpU. set `parapet' (< Arabic sadd) has alternative learned and popular forms: acc. sedd: and set: respectively. There was a short-lived fashion in the nineteen-fifties for con- sistently spelling (though not pronouncing) with b, c, and d the absolute forms of all nouns subject to the alternations b/p, c/C, d/t : k:tab, muh:b, :ht:yac, tac, Ser:d, red, etc. This fashion is refiected in the second edition of OTD (1957) and the third edition of TS (1959), but not in the fifth edition of I+mla= Kilavuzu (1959) or YI+K (1965), which print k:tap, muh:p, :ht:yaC, taC, Ser:t, ret, etc. Survivals of the practice may be regarded as idiosyncratic. 20. Consonant assimilation in suffixes. When a suffix beginning with c, d, or g is added to a word ending in one of the unvoiced consonants C, f, h, k, p, s, S, t, the initial consonant of the suffix is unvoiced to C, t, or k. The suffix -c: denotes occupation: esk: `old', esk:-c: `old-clothes dealer', but elektr:k-C: `electrician', The suffix of the locative case is -de: I+zm:r'de `in Izmir' but Par:s'te `in Paris'. The locative case of :S `work' is sometimes spelled :Sde to avoid confusion with :Ste `behold'; similarly the locative of Us `base' (naval, etc.) is spelt Usde to avoid confusion with the dative case Uste of Ust `top'. The adjectival suffix -gan: atil-gan `reckless' but unut-kan `forgetful'. Those writers who follow the fashion mentioned at the end of #19, i.e. who do not, in writing, recognize the unvoicing of final b, c, and d, do not unvoice the initial voiced consonant of suffixes either; e.g. k:tapCi `bookseller' they write as k:tabci and sev:nCte `in joy' as sev:ncde. 21 . Vowels: general observations. Turkish vowels are normally short but may be long in three situations; see #30. The difference between short and long vowels is of quantity not quality: the positions of the speech organs is the same; the change is in the length of time during which the breath flows. That is why long a may be written aa; see #9, third paragraph and, #30 (c). Vowels are classified according to three criteria: (a) `Front' or `back', according to whether it is the front or back of the tongue which interrupts the flow of breath. (b) `Open' or `close', according to the amount of space left between tongue and palate; alternative terms are `high' and `low'. (c) `Rounded' or `unrounded', according to the position of the lips. The eight vowels of standard Turkish are tabulated thus: Unrounded Rounded Open Close Open Close Back a i o u Front e : 0 U 22. a. A back, open, unrounded vowel, like the a of French avoir or northern English man. Short, baba `father'; long, daGa `to the mountain'. There is also a front sound of a, verging on that of e, which can be heard in careful speakers' pronunciation of some Arabic borrowings and in the Istanbul word anne `mother' (elsewhere ana). Short, d:kkat `attention'; long, cah:l `ignorant'. 23. i. A back, close, unrounded vowel. It is not unlike the sound of a in serial, but a closer approximation can be achieved by spreading the lips as if to say easy but saying cushion instead; the result will be the Turkish kiSin `in winter'. Short, diS `exterior'; long, yaptiGim `which I did'. Americans will recognize in it the sound of the first vowel of Missouri as pronounced by a native of that state. 24. o. A back, open, rounded vowel, like French o in note: Cok `much', yok `non-existent'. Long, as in doGdu `he was born', it is much like the vowel of English daw without the final u-glide. A word of warning is necessary here. Some English-speakers, aware that Turkish o is not the same as English o in hot, go to the other extreme and pronounce Cok and yok exactly like choke and yoke, thus providing their Turkish friends with a good deal of amusement. Turkish o is in fact closer to the vowel of hot than to that of choke. 25. u. A back, close, rounded vowel between the vowels of English put and pool. Short, burun `nose'; long, uGur `luck'. 26. e. A front, open, unrounded vowel, like French e in e=tre. Short, sever `he loves'; long, tes:r `effect'. It also has a closer pronunciation, verging on the sound of :, which is sometimes heard especially in the first syllables of vermek `to give' and gece `night'. These two sounds of e are not separate phonemes in standard Turkish. In dialect, however, el `hand' and el `people', homophones in the standard language, are pronounced differently, with open and close e respectively. 27. :. A front, close, unrounded vowel, as in French si, closer than in English pin. Short, d:S `tooth'; long, :Gne `needle'. 28. 0. A front, open, rounded vowel, as in German; the French eu in peur. Short, g0rmek `to see'; long, 0Grenmek `to learn'. 29. U. A front, close, rounded vowel, as in German; the French u in mur. Short, UzUm `grapes'; long, dUGme `button'. 30. Vowel length. The three situations in which long vowels occur are: (a) In foreign borrowings: gha**zi** (A) `warrior for the Faith' > gaz: (pronounced ga**zi); bara**bar (P) `together' > beraber (long a). Many originally long vowels, however, are shortened: kaba**b (A) `roast' > kebap ; baqqa**l `greengrocer' > bakkal `grocer'. This tendency is still in progress, as may be seen in so recent a borrowing as jeep > c:p, with short :. A long vowel in Arabic borrowings may represent an original short vowel-hamza or short vowel-"ayn: ta'thi**r `effect' > tes:r (e long); ma"lu**m `known' > malu=m (both vowels long). A large number of Arabic borrowings retain an original long vowel in the last syllable when a vowel is added, but shorten it otherwise; tes:r is one such, acc. tes:r: pronounced te**si**ri. Others in common use include hayat 'life', acc. hayati; zaman `time', acc. zamani; mal `property', acc. mali ; cevap `answer', acc. cevabi, all the accusatives with a long. All such words are indicated in the OTD. Rarely one sees an idiosyncratic use of :y to denote long :, par- ticularly in the pietistic spelling :yman for :man `faith'. Yakup Kadri KaraosmanoGlu, one of Turkey's greatest writers, habitually spells, for example, :la=n `notice' and :t:bar `regard' as :yla=n and :yt:bar; he also uses the spelling kiy for the Arabic qi** (see #9, penultimate paragraph). The spelling l:ynet for Arabic li**nat- `looseness of the bowels', however, is conventional. (b) Any vowel followed by G-consonant (except when G is interchangeable with v; see #10), any front vowel followed by y-consonant, or any back vowel followed by G is pronounced long: deGd: `he touched'; yaGmur `rain'; meyva `fruit'; daG `mountain'; CiG `avalanche'. (c) When it is desired to emphasize a word, one vowel may be dwelled on, i.e. lengthened. This lengthening may be shown in writing by repeating the vowel-letter, often to an extent that would surprise an English printer: asla `never', aslaaa `never !'; Cok `much', Coook `much too much'; Coktan `for a long time' Coktaaan `for ages and ages'; fakat `but', fakaaaaaat `but'. vay anam, literally `oh, my mother', an expression of distress, may be spelled vay anaam. Doubled vowels originally separated in Arabic by hamza or "ayn, as well as doubled vowels arising from compounding words, are pronounced separately: Sa=Saa `glitter' < sha"sha'a (A); karaaGaC `elm' < kara `black' + aGaC `tree'. 31. Vowel harmony. The principle of vowel harmony, which permeates Turkish word-formation and suffixation, is due to the natural human tendency towards economy of muscular effort. It is expressed in three rules: (a) If the first vowel of a word is a back vowel, any subsequent vowel is also a back vowel; if the first is a front vowel, any subse- quent vowel is also a front vowel. (b) If the first vowel is unrounded, so too are subsequent vowels. (c) If the first vowel is rounded, subsequent vowels are either rounded and close or unrounded and open. The first rule is based on the phenomenon of palatal assimila- tion: that part of the tongue which interrupts the breath-flow over the palate in the production of the first vowel of a word remains in use for the production of the subsequent vowels of the word. The second and third rules are based on labial assimilation: if the lips are rounded for the first vowel they may stay rounded for subsequent vowels, whereas if they are uurounded for the first vowel the speaker does not make the effort to round them subse- quently. There is a partial exception to the second rule: the special case of words whose first vowel is a followed by b, m, p, or v, as the lip-position for the production of these labial con- sonants is not far removed from the rounded position necessary for the production of u. The practical effect of these rules may be set out thus: a may be followed by a or i. It may also be followed by u, if b, m, p, or v intervenes. i may be followed by a or i o " " " " u " a u " " " " u " a e " " " " e " : : " " " " e " : 0 " " " " U " e U " " " " U " e If the vowel of the first syllable is, say, e, that of the s be e or :, so, for example, gelen and gel:n are possible words but gelan and gel0n are not. To find the possible third vowels of a word beginning gel:n, we look at : in the first column and see that it can be followed by e or :; thus gel:ne and gelini are possible but gelin0 and gelini are not. It will be observed that, as a rule, o and 0 occur only in first syllables. Vowel harmony is a process of progressive assimilation, [LINE MISSING] vowel affecting the second, and so on. There are some instances of regressive assimilation; for example, in o b:r `the other' the o is fronted to 0 by regressive assimilation to the :, which it in turn rounds to U giving the form 0bUr. See also bu gUn > bUgUn in #32 (b) and :mparator, menecer, madalya, apolet, and UtUv in #33. 32. Exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony. These are of four classes: (a) Native words, simple. The following words contain both back and front vowels: dah: `also', ela= `light brown', elma `apple', hang: `which?', han: `where?', hayd: `come on !', :nanmak `to believe', kardeS `brother' (see IV, 9), katmer `the state of being folded', S:Sman `fat'. Note also anne (#22). (b) Compound words, e.g. bu `this'-gUn `day' > bugUn `today', sometimes heard as bUgUn and even bUGUn ; baS `head'- mUfett:S (A) `inspector' > baSmUfett:S `chief inspector'. (c) Invariable suffixes: -daS, -yor, -ken, -ley:n, -:mtrak, -k:, and -g:l. -k: and the rare suffixed form of :C:n `for' sometimes exhibit an exceptional variation :/U, appearing as -k: and -Cln after unrounded vowels, -kU and -CUn after rounded vowels. (d) Foreign words, e.g. beyan (A) `declaration', ferman (P) `command', m:krop (French) `microbe', fer:bot (English) `car- or train-ferry', p:skopos (Greek) `bishop' 33. Vowel harmony in foreign borrowings. The effect of vowel harmony extends to non-Turkish words too, bringing as many vowels as possible of a foreign borrowing into one class, or pressing a foreign borrowing whose vowels happen to be all of one class still further into Turkish form. Thus Serbo-Croat imperator `emperor' > :mparator. English manager, in the special sense of manager of a football team, appears as menecer, while a `penalty' in football is penalti. Italian medaglia `medal' > madalya. French epaulette > apolet ; etuve `sterilizer' > etUv > UtUv. Arabic mumkin `possible' > mUmk:n > mUmkUn ; mudi**r `administrator' > mUd:r > mUdUr; mufti** `jurisconsult' > mUft: > mUftU; qib&i** `Copt' > kipt: > kipti `gipsy'. 34. Vowel harmony of suffixes. Apart from the exceptions noted in #32 (c), all suffixes are subject to the rules of vowel harmony, . the quality of the last syllable of the word determining the quality of the vowel of the suffix. Some suffixes are twofold, their vowel appearing as e after front-vowel words, as a after back-vowel words. Others are fourfold, their vowel being: or U after un- rounded and rounded front vowels respectively, i or u after unrounded and rounded back vowels respectively. The suffix of the dative case, for example, is twofold: -e with front-vowel words, -a with back-vowel words. 'The suffix of the genitive is fourfold: -in after e or i, -Un after 0 or U, -in after a or i, -un after o or u. As for words with more than one suffix, the two tables below show the possible vowels (a) of a twofold suffix after a fourfold suffix, and (b) vice versa. It will be seen that these tables contain no new information but are based entirely on #31- (a) Last vowel Vowel of first Vowel of second of word suffix: fourfold suffix: twofold e or : : e 0 or U U a or i i a o or u u If the vowel of the second suffix is also fourfold it will be as shown for the first suffix. (b) Last vowel Vowel of first Vowel of second of word suffix: twofold suffix: fourfold e,:,0,U e : a,i,o,u a i If the vowel of the second suffix is also twofold it will be as shown for the first suffix. The tables also hold good for suffixes of two syllables; e.g. reference to table (a) shows that the suffix -:nce will appear as -unca after a word whose last vowel is u, while reference to (b) shows that -es: will appear as -asi after a word whose last vowel is :. The convention followed in this book is to refer to suffixes in their e or : forms; thus we shall speak of the plural suffix, which is -ler after front vowels and -lar after back vowels, as -ler. Similarly the genitive suffix will be referred to as -:n, which must be read as short for `the appropriate close vowel-n, i.e.-in,-Un, -in, or -un, according to the nature of the preceding vowel'. Some grammars indicate whether a suffix undergoes the twofold or the fourfold mutation by the use of indices; e.g. the plural suffix may be shown as -ler the genitive suffix as -:n, but there is no need for this once the principle has been grasped. The consonant-alternations described in #20 add to the protean nature of the Turkish suffix. The suffix conventionally referred to as -c:, for example, has eight possible forms, illustrated in these eight words: kahvec: `coffee-maker', tUtUncU `tobacconist', kapici `janitor', sporcu `sportsman', bekC: `watchman', sUtCU `milkman', telgrafCi `telegraphist', topCu `artilleryman'. 35. Vowel harmony of suffixes with foreign borrowings. Some foreign words with a back vowel in the last syllable nevertheless take front-vowel suffixes. These may be grouped as follows: (a) Arabic or French words ending in l (#12): mahsul `pro- duce', acc. mahsulU; rol `role', acc. rolU. The fact that gol `goal' is similarly treated--acc. golU--shows that it is borrowed from French and not directly from English. (b) Arabic words ending in k: :drak `perception', acc. :drak:; :St:rak `participation', acc. :St:rak:. But Arabic words ending in q take back-vowel suffixes: sharq `east' > Sark, acc. Sarki; see the penultimate paragraph of this section. (c) Arabic words ending in t or -at- (p. 8, footnote): d:kkat `attention', acc. d:kkat: ; saat `hour, clock', acc. saat:. But Arabic feminine plurals in -a**t take back-vowel suffixes: r:yaz:yat `mathematics', acc. r:yaz:yati ; ruh:yat `psychology', acc. ruh:yati. So too do words ending in t derived from the unvoicing of Arabic final d: iqtii**a**d `economy' > :kt:sat, acc. :kt:sadi; maq$ad `purpose' > maksat, acc. maksadi. (d) Arabic monosyllables with an a followed by two consonants, the second of which is a front consonant: @arb `war' > harp, acc. harb:; @arf `letter of the alphabet' > harf, acc. harf:; gharb `west' > garp, acc. garb:. When the two consonants in such words represent a sound-combination unpronounceable by Turks, the epenthetic vowel is a front vowel, because of the final front consonant; cf. kav:l, kav:m, and kav:s in #18, and note also: waqt `time' > vakit, qabr `tomb' > kab:r, ba@th `dis- cussion, topic' > bah:s ; accusatives vakt:, kabr:, bahs:. (e) The Persian ya=r `friend, beloved' (confined to poetry) has front-vowel suffixes: acc. ya=r:, gen. ya=r:n, dat. ya=re, and ya=r:m `my friend'. The explanation that this is to avoid con- fusion with the native words yara `wound', yari, yarim `half', and yarin `tomorrow' is too facile; it could never have happened if ya=r had not ended in a front consonant. Some such foreign words, however, have become completely naturalized, because they conform to Turkish phonetic patterns, and they therefore take back-vowel suffixes: sanat `art' (#15) could perfectly well be a native word, like kanat `wing', whereas saat, with its double a, could not. Similarly kanal (French canale) looks as Turkish as kartal `eagle' and its accusative is kanali. So too asil `origin' (Arabic a$l), acc. asli. Partly by analogy with this word, partly through its frequent use as a musical term, fa$l (A) `division' > fasil, acc. fasli, although its initial f marks it as non-Turkish. Likewise rahat `ease, comfort', though marked as non-Turkish by its initial r, belongs to the back-vowel class because of its everyday use. Arabic words ending in q , even if they have a front vowel in the last syllable, take back-vowel suffixes: shawq `desire' > Sevk, acc. Sevki; sawq `drive' > sevk, acc. sevki; fawq `top' > fevk, acc. fevki. There is a tendency to eliminate more and more of these exceptional vowel harmonies. Some elderly people still give sanat, or rather san'at, front-vowel suffixes; for a young person to do so would be regarded as affectation, and it is a fairly safe pre- diction that rolU, :drak:, harb:, and so on will one day yield to rolu, :draki, harbi, first in vulgar speech, then -in educated speech, and finally in writing. 36. Alternation of vowels. If a suffix beginning with y is added to a verb-stem ending in e or a, the y narrows the e or a into : or i respectively, unless (a) the vowel after the y is : or i, when the e or a remains unchanged, e.g. in konuSma-yiverd:, or (b) both the vowel before the e or a and the vowel after the y are rounded, when the e or a becomes U or u. Thus bekle-yecek > bekl:yecek ; anla-yacak > anliyacak ; tUre-yor > tUrUyor; kolla-yor > kolluyor. Some writers disregard these changes, writing bekleyecek, anlayacak, tUreyor, kollayor. Yeni I+mla= Kilavuzu recommends disregarding them except before -yor. 37. Accentuation: general observations. There is little unanimity about accentuation among writers on Turkish grammar. As one listens to Turkish being spoken one notices that some syllables are more marked than others. The problem is to identify the way they are marked; is it by stress or a change in musical pitch? In the present work `accent' means a rise in the pitch of the voice. But apart from the nature of the accent, there is some disagree- ment, even among native authorities, about which syllable in a given word is accented. The reason why such disageement is possible is, firstly, that word-accent in Turkish is not so powerful as in English, where the accented syllable often swamps the unaccented (`Extr'ord'n'ry!') or as in Russian, grammers of which have to give rules for the pronunciation of unaccented syllables. Secondly, group-accent and sentence-accent (i.e. intona- tion) both override word-accent so completely that some authori- ties have denied the existence of word-accent altogether. An English parallel will make this clearer. If one were asked to mark where the word-accent comes in machine, one would naturally put it on the second syllable: machine. But if the word is used as the second element of a compound noun its accent is lost and the group-accent prevails: sewing-machine. If a manufacturer of sewing-machines tells his wife that he has bought one for her, her reply may well be an incredulous `You've bought a sewing- machine?' with both word- and group-accent lost and the sentence-accent on `bought' prevailing. 38. Word-accent. With the exceptions stated below, Turkish words are oxytone, i.e. accented on the last syllable; when an oxytone word is extended by suffixes the accent is on the last syllable of the word thus formed: CocUk `child', Cocukla*r `children', Cocuklarim:z `our children' uklarimizi*n of our children'; oda=* `room', odada=* `in the room', odadak:=* `that which is in the room', odadak:le=*r `those who are in the room', odada- kilerde=*n `from those who are in the room'. Non-oxytones keep the accent on the original syllable: te=*yze `aunt', te=*yzen:z, `your aunt', te=*yzen:ze `to your aunt'; A=*nkara'da `in Ankara'. 39. Exceptions: (a) Place-names are not oxytone: Ana=*dolu `Anatolia', I+sta=*nbul. Most are accented on their first syllable: Pa=*r:s, Zo=*nguldak. This rule is particularly to be noted with regard to place-names which are spelt the same as common nouns: misir `maize', Mi=*sir `Egypt'; s:rkec:=* `vinegar-seller', S:=*rkec:, a district of Istanbul; bebe=*k `doll, baby', Be=*bek, a village on the Bosphorus; karama=*n `fat-tailed sheep', Ka=*raman, a city of southern Anatolia; ordu=* `army', O=*rdu, a city on the Black Sea. Polysyllabic place-names of non-Turkish origin generally retain their original accentuation: Ing:lte=*re `England', Ispa=*nya `Spain', Anta=*lya, Mala=*tya. There is, however, a tendency for the accent to go back to the beginning of the place-name; residents of Malatya, for example, generally accent the name of their city on the first syllable. (b) Foreign nouns usually retain their original accentuation: loka=*nta `restaurant' (Italian locanda); o=*lta `fishing-line' ra=*dyo `radio, wireless'; ta=*ks: `taxi'; ko=*kteyl `cocktail, cocktail-party'; gaze=*te `newspaper' (Italian gazzetta). (c) A number of nouns denoting relatives and living creatures: a=*nne `mother', a=*bla `elder sister', g0rU=*mce `husband's sister', ye=*nge `brother's wife', ha=*la `paternal aunt', te=*yze `maternal aunt', a=*mca `paternal uncle', Cek:=*rge `grass-hopper', kar:nca `ant', koka=*rca `pole-cat'. (d) Adverbs are usually accented on the first syllable: S:=*md: `now', so=*nra `after', e=*vvela= `firstly', a=*nsiz or a=*nsizin `suddenly', a=*ncak `only'. This applies also to adverbs formed from nouns with the addition of a case-suffix: gerCekte=*n `from the truth' but ge=*rCekten `truly'. In several adverbs the suffix of the old instru- mental case appears: k:Sin `in winter', ya=*zin `in summer' (the genitives, `of winter, of summer', are spelt identically but are accented on the last syllable). The nouns of place (XII, 12) are accented on the first syllable: bu=*ra `this place', o=*ra `that place', bu=*rada `here', o=*raya `thither'. So are nouns used adverbially without suffixes: n:haye=*t `end' but n:=*hayet `finally'; Coklu=*k `multitude' but Co=*kluk `often'; arti=*k `residue' but a=*rtik `henceforth'. So too are some, but not all, adjectives used as adverbs: yalni=*z `alone' but ya=*lniz `only'; sah:=*h `correct' but sa=*h: `really' (#11). On the other hand, :y: `good', fena `bad', and Cabuk `quick' remain oxytone even when used to mean `well, badly, quickly'. The third-person singular of the aorist of olmak `to become', olur, means not only `becomes' but also `all right, O.K.'. In this sense it may be accented on the first syllable as an adverb. (e) In compound words the accent usually falls on the end of the first element: Cipla=*k `naked' Ciri=*lCiplak `stark naked'; baS `head' - baka=*n `minister' > ba=*Sbakan `prime minister'; b:r `a' - taki=*m `set' > b:=*rtakim `several' (f) Diminutives in -c:k are accented on the first syllable: u=*facik `tiny', e=*vc:k `little house'. (g) Polysyllabic suffixes, except -ley:n and -ces:ne (#40) are accented on the first syllable: g:d-:=*nce `having gone'; yap-a=*rak `by doing' So too are interjections and vocatives: ha=*yd: `come on!' a=*fer:n `bravo!' garso=*n `waiter' but ga=*rson `waiter !' 40. Enclitic suffixes. The following suffixes are enclitic; i.e. they themselves are never accented but throw the accent on to the preceding syllable: (a) -le `with': memnun:ye=*tle `with pleasure'; onu=*nla `with him'. (b) -ken `while': yaza=*rken `while writing'. (c) The adverbial suffix -ce and its extension -ces:ne : :y:=*ce `well', hayva=*ncasina `bestially'. (d) The adverbial suffix -ley:n (compounded with the instru- mental -:n) : gece=*ley:n `by night', akSa=*mley:n `at evening'. (e) The negative suffix -me : gel `come', ge=*lme `do not come'; anlad:=* `he understood', anla=*madi `he did not understand'. (f) The suffix -yor of the present tense: gel:=*yor `he is coming'. (g) The suffixed forms of the verb `to be'; see #41 (a). (h) The vowel of the Persian izafet; see II, 26. Part of the controversy about Turkish accentuation is over the question whether these suffixes are properly described as enclitic or atonal, i.e. without accent. The former seems correct, as we see if we take a non-oxytone such as baSbakan (#39 (e)) and add -le: ba=*Sbaka=*nla, with the accent before -la at least as noticeable as that on baS. Those who take the opposing view adduce, e.g., sa=*dece `simply' from sade=* `simple' and a=*yrica `separately' from ayri=* `separate', in which the syllables immediately before the suffix are not accented; these words, however, simply have the accentuation normal in adverbs. 41. Enclitic words. The following words are enclitic: (a) Those parts of the verb `to be' which are not formed from the stem ol- ; they are enclitic both when independent words and when suffixed: arkadaSi=*m :d: or arkadaSi=*mdi `he was my friend'; evl:=* :se or evl:=*yse `if she is married'; k:=*mse `person' (V, 24); memnu=*num `I am glad'. (b) The interrogative particle m:. The rise in pitch before this particle is most noticeable, predominating over the word-accent: anla=*madi `he did not understand' but anlamad: m:? `did he not understand?' When the present tense, however, is followed by this particle it retains the accent on the penultimate: gel:=*yor `he is coming'; gel:=*yor mu? `is he coming?' (c) The postpositions: s:z:=*n g:b: `like you'; ben:=*m :C:n `for me'. (d) The conjunction k: : d:yorla=*r k: o=*lmiyacak `they are saying that it will not happen' (note also the accent before the negative suffix in the last word). (e) The adverb de : b:=*z de `we too' If more than one of these words come together, the accent is on the word preceding them: b:=*z de m: g:del:m? `shall we go too?' 42. Group-accent. The two most obvious features of this are: (a) That in izafet-groups (II, 17) the accent is normally on the first element, on the syllable which carries the accent when the word is spoken in isolation: TU=*rkiye Cumhur:yet: `Republic of Turkey'; yeme=*k odasi `dining-room'. (b) Demonstratives are accented when they qualify nouns: bu=* Cocuk `this child' but Cocu=*k bu `it's only a child' (V, 5). 43. Intonation. Sentence-accent or intonation is partly emotional, depending on the feelings and emphasis which the speaker wishes to convey, and partly syntactical and automatic. The general rule is that a rise in pitch denotes that the thought is not yet complete, whereas a fall in pitch marks its end. Thus the subject is uttered with a rising intonation, the predicate with a falling. The protasi of a conditional sentence likewise has a rising intonation, the apodosis a falling. Questions and exclamations have a rising in- tonation. II. THE NOUN 1. Gender. Turkish is devoid of grammatical gender, nor does the sex of persons affect the forms of words. The third-person pronoun o does duty for `he', `she', and `it'; gel:r means `he/she/it comes'. There are totally distinct names for the male and female of most by the use of d:S: `female' or erkek `male': d:S: kedi `female cat'; erkek ayi `male bear'. With nouns which may denote persons of either sex, femininity may be shown by using kiz `girl' or kadin `woman' in apposition: kiz talebe `girl student'; kadin garson `waitress', kadin kahraman `heroine'; kardeS `brother' or `sister', kizkardeS (written as one word) `sister'. Advantage is also taken of the facilities possessed by French and Arabic for showing gender: `actress' is aktr:s; `female dancer' is rakkase (A) or dans0z; `female clerk' is ka=t:be (A). The Serbo-Croat feminine suffix -ica appears in three old borrowings: kiral:Ce `queen', :mparator:Ce `empress', CariCe `tsarina' (< kraljica, imperatorica, carica). Modelled on these is the neologism tanriCa `goddess', from the name of the old Turkish sky-god Tanri. The word hanim `lady', originally `wife of a Kha**n (han)', is held by some to contain an ancient Turkish feminine ending; cf. the Eastern Turkish begUm `begum', originally `wife of a Beg or Bey', though the evidence is slight. The ending is more prob- ably the possessive suffix of the first-person singular. 2. Number: the Turkish plural. The plural is formed by adding -ler to the singular: talebeler `students', kizlar `girls'. The `singular' form of the noun, however, is numerically neutral (hence its use after numbers), denoting a category or an individual member of that category: pol:s `the police' or `the policeman', b:r pol:s `a policeman', pol:sler `the policemen'; S::r yazar `he writes poetry', b:r S::r yazar `he writes a poem', S::rler yazar `he writes poems'; casusluk `espionage', b:r casusluk `a case of espionage'; kahramanlik `heroism', kahramanliklar `deeds of heroism'; :y:l:k `goodness', :y:l:kler `benefactions'. Thus pad:Sahin b:r:, lit. `one of sultan', means `one of the category ``sultan'', a certain sultan' and may well begin a fairy-tale. But pad:Sahlarin b:r: means one out of all the historical individuals who have held the title, `one of the Sultans'. A singular verb is commonly used with an inanimate plural subject, the plural verb being used for individuals. The use of a plural verb with a singular subject, second or third person, is a mark of respect. See further XVI, 1 and 3 (b). Personal names may be used in the plural like our `the Joneses' to refer to a family; in Turkish the plural may be of a given name as well as of a surname: Mehmetler `Mehmet and his family'; cf. #15, end, and IV, 10. The plural erenler of the present participle of ermek `to attain', i.e. those who attain spiritual enlightenment, was used as a form of address among dervishes, even when speaking to a single person. Numerals are usually followed by a singular noun: kirk haram: `forty thieves', UC s:la=hSor `three musketeers', on :k: ada `twelve islands'. The use of a plural noun after a numeral shows that the persons or things in question form a particularly well-known and distinct entity: kirk haram:ler `The Forty Thieves', UC s:la=h- Sorlar `The Three Musketeers', on :k: adalar `the Dodecanese'. The plural suffix may be added directly to the numeral: `fourteen' is on d0rt and the fourteen officers dropped from the Committee of National Unity in November 1960 were referred to in the press and in conversation as ond0rtler `The Fourteen'. So kirklar `The Forty '. 3. Arabic plurals. Arabic has two types of plural. (a) The external or sound plural masculine is made by adding -u**n for the nominative, -i**n for the accusative and genitive. Turkish borrowed only the latter form, using it as a nominative (as in colloquial Arabic): memur `official', pl. memur:n; this ending is obsolete in Turkish, except that this particular example is occasionally used. The external or sound plural feminine is formed by adding -a**t. Arabic uses it as Greek and Latin use the neuter plural; the modern Turkish vocabulary still retains a number of words such as var:dat `revenues', mUla=hazat `observations', :kt:sad:yat `economics', haSarat `vermin'. There are two jocular formations with this suffix added to Turkish words: g:d:Sat `goings-on' < g:d:S `manner of going'; saCmav:yat `stuff and nonsense' < saCma `nonsense'. As saCma ends with a vowel, the latter forma- tion is analogous to that of, e.g., kUrev:yat `spherical trigonometry' < kUre `sphere'. Both g:d:Sat and saCmav:yat have something of the quasi-learned flavour of English shambolical < shambles. (b) The internal or broken plural is made not by suffixation but by wresting the singular out of shape: waqf, pl- awqa**f `pious foundation'; sul&a**n pl. sala**&i**n, `sultan' - `a**lim, pl. `ulama**' `scholar' Many broken plurals survive in Turkish, most being treated as Turkish singulars: &alaba `students', pl. of &a**lib, appears as talebe `student'; "amala `workmen', pl. of "a**mil, as amele `work- man'; khadama `servants', pl. of kha**dim, as hademe `man- servant'; tujja**r `merchants', pl. of ta**jir, as tUccar `merchant'. The reason is that the Arabic broken plural, unlike the sound plural but just like the Turkish singular, can denote a class (in Arabic it can be construed with a singular verb) and therefore it fitted naturally into place in Turkish as a singular. The Arabic sound plural, on the other hand, denotes a number of individuals and was therefore felt by the Turks to be a true plural, not requiring the Turkish plural suffix. Some Arabic broken plurals are used in Turkish with a sense different from that of their singulars: juz' `part' and its plural ajza appear respectively as cUz `fascicle' and ecza `The unbound fascicles of a book' or `chemicals, drugs'; shay' `thing' and its plural ashya**' appear as Sey `thing' and eSya `luggage, belongings', the latter usually with the plural suffix, eSyalar. 4. Other plurals. In Ottoman, the Persian plural suffix -a**n was frequently attached to Arabic singulars: mebusan `Deputies to the Ottoman Parliament' < Arabic mab"u**th-Persian -a**n. Still in occasional use is zab:tan `officers' < Arabic |a**bi&-Persian -a**n. domates `tomatoes' and patates `potatoes' are both direct borrowings from modern Greek and both are treated as Turkish singulars. One quasi-Mongoloid plural, erat, a product of the language- reform movement, has replaced, in official parlance, the Ottoman efrat `private soldiers and N.C.O.s' < Arabic afra**d. It is ap- parently a cross between efrat and the Turkish er `man'. 5. The Arabic dual. Arabic has a dual number, indicated by -a**n in the nominative, -ayn in the accusative and genitive: &araf `side'; &arafa**n, &arafayn `two sides'. As with the sound plural masculine, only the accusative-genitive form was taken into Otto- man; it survives in three obsolescent words: tarafeyn `the two parties', and val:deyn and ebeveyn, both meaning `the two parents'. 6. The cases. There are six. The simplest form of a noun, with no suffixes, is termed the absolute case; it is used not only for the nominative and vocative but also for the indefinite accusative. The term accusative will be applied to what should strictly be called the defined accusative. The other cases are: the genitive denoting possession; the dative denoting the indirect object and the end of motion; the locative denoting place where; the ablative denoting point of departure. Their commonest functions are illustrated below; for a more detailed examination see ##9-14 and XVI, 5, 6, absolute ev satildi the house has been sold b:r ev ariyoruz we are seeking a house accusative ev: aldik we have bought the-house genitive ev:n bahCes: the garden of-the-house dative eve geld:m I came to-the-house locative evde kaldi he has stayed in-the-house ablative evden uzak far from-the-house As will be seen from these examples, the suffix of the accusative is -:, genitive -:n, dative -e, locative -de, and ablative -den. The first two are subject to the fourfold, the others to the twofold harmony. The case-suffixes follow the -ler of the plural. To prevent those suffixes which consist in or begin with a vowel from being lost when added to a word ending with a vowel, a separator or `buffer-letter'is used n for the genitive, y for the accusative and dative. The sole exception is su `water', which in the ancient language was suw and now has y before the suffix of the genitive as well as of the accusative and dative. Another relic of the original final w is the v in the verb suvarmak `to water an animal'. Examples will now be given to illustrate the changes wrought by vowel harmony and the other alternations described in Chapter I. (a) Front-vowel class, consonant-stems; el `hand', k0y `village': Singular abs. el k0y acc. el: k0yU gen. el:n k0yUn dat. ele k0ye loc. elde k0yde abl. elden k0yden Plural abs. eller k0yler acc. eller: k0yler: gen. eller:n k0yler:n dat. ellere k0ylere loc. ellerde k0ylerde abl. ellerden k0ylerden Reference to the tables in I, 31 or 34 will show that suffixes after : have the same forms as after e, so that the declension of el serves as a model for consonant-stems whose last or only vowel is :, such as den:z `sea', d:S `tooth'. Similarly, the declension of k0y serves as a model for consonant-stems whose last or only vowel is U, such as tUtUn `tobacco', gUn `day'. (b) Front-vowel class, vowel-stems; gece `night' 0lCU `measure': Singular abs. gece 0lCU acc. gecey: 0lCUyU gen. gecen:n 0lCUnUn dat. geceye 0lCUye loc. gecede 0lCUde abl. geceden 0lCUden Plural abs. geceler 0lCUler acc. geceler: 0lCUler: gen. geceler:n 0lCUnUn dat. gecelere 0lCUlere loc. gecelerde 0lCUlerde abl. gecelerden 0lCUlerden Like gece are declined vowel-stems in :, such as gem: `ship', serg: `exhibition'. Like 0lCU are declined vowel-stems in 0, of which the only examples in common use are two French borrow- ings: m0sy0 `Monsieur' and banl:y0 `suburbs'. (c) Back-vowel class, consonant-stems; akSam `evening', son `end': Singular abs. akSam son acc. akSami sonu gen. akSamin sonun dat. akSama sona loc. akSamda sonda abl. akSamdan sondan Plural abs. akSamlar sonlar acc. akSamlari sonlari gen. akSamlarin sonlarin dat. akSamlara sonlara loc. akSamlarda sonlarda abl. akSamlardan sonlardan Like akSam are declined consonant-stems whose last or only vowel is i: kadin `woman', CiG `avalanche'. Like son are declined consonant-stems whose last or only vowel is u: sabun `soap', kuS `bird'. (d) Back-vowel class, vowel-stems; tarla `field' korku `fear' Singular abs. tarla korku acc. tarlayi korkuyu gen. tarlanin korkunun dat. tarlaya korkuya loc. tarlada korkuda abl. tarladan korkudan Plural abs. tarlalar korkular acc. tarlalari korkulari etc., as type (c). Like tarla are declined vowel-stems in i : kapi `door', dari `millet'. Like korku are declined vowel-stems in o : palto `over- coat', kadro `staff, cadre'. (e) Nouns exhibiting alternation of consonants; kitap `book', aGaC `tree', damat `son-in-law', renk `colour', ekmek `bread' (I,19): b/p c/C d/t g/k k/G Singular abs. k:tap aGaC damat renk ekmek acc. k:tabi aGaci damadi reng: ekmeG: gen. k:tabin aGacin damadin reng:n ekmeG:n dat. k:taba aGaca damada renge ekmeGe loc. kitapta aGaCta damatta renkte ekmekte abl. kitaptan aGaCtan damattan renkten ekmekten plural abs. kitaplar aGaClar damatlar renkler ekmekler acc. kitaplari aGaClari damatlari renkleri ekmekleri etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. (f) Foreign borrowings with exceptional vowel-harmony; hal `case', rol `role', saat `hour', harp `war' (I, 35): Singular abs. hal rol saat harp acc. hal: rolU saat: harb: gen. hal:n rolUn saat:n harb:n dat. hale role saate harbe loc. halde rolde saatte harpte abl. halden rolden saatten harpten Plural abs. haller roller saatler harpler acc. haller: roller: saatler: harpler: etc. etc. etc. etc. (g) Nouns which add or drop a vowel in the last syllable; :s:m `name' (I, 17 (c)), aGiz `mouth', koyun `bosom', oGul `son', alin `forehead' (I, 17, end): Singular abs. :s:m aGiz koyun oGul alin acc. :sm: aGzi koynu oGlu alni gen. :sm:n aGzin koynun oGulun alnin dat. :sme aGza koyna oGula alina loc. :s:mde aGizda koyunda oGulda alinda abl. :s:mden aGizdan koyundan oGuldan alindan Plural abs. :s:mler aGizlar koyunlar oGullar alinlar acc. :s:mler: aGizlari koyunlari oGullari alinlari etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. Most native nouns of this sort are names of parts of the body. Of the examples, aGiz and koyun are typical, whereas oGul and alin retain the vowel of the second syllable in the dative, as does burun `nose'; oGul retains it in the genitive too. As well as `son', oGul can mean `swarm of bees'; as well as `bosom', koyun can also mean `sheep'. In these latter senses, both retain the u in all cases. There is yet another word koyun, the genitive of koy `bay'. (h) Nouns originally ending in "ayn (I, 15) are increasingly treated as vowel-stems except by the learned. Examples: mevzu `topic, subject' < Arabic maw|u**"; cam: `mosque' < Arabic ia**mi". Learned Popular Learned popular Singular abs. mevzu cam: acc. mevzuu mevzuyu cam:: cam:y: gen. mevzuun mevzunun cam::n cam:n:n dat. mevzua mezvuya cam:e cam:ye loc. mevzuda cam:de abl. mevzudan cam:den Plural abs. mevzular cam:ler acc. mevzulari cam:ler: etc. etc. (i) Nouns originally ending in a doubled final consonant (I, 16, 19); hak `right', muh:p `friend', hat `line', serhat `frontier'. Note that the dative and locative of hat are identical in shape; hatta can represent hatt-a or hat-ta. Singular abs. hak muh:p hat serhat acc. hakki muhibb: hatti serhadd: gen. hakkin muh:bb:n hattin serhadd:n dat. hakka muh:bbe hatta serhadde loc. hakta muh:pte hatta serhatte abl. haktan muh:pten hattan serhatten Plural abs. haklar muh:pler hatlar serhatler acc. haklari muh:pler: hatlari serhatler: etc. etc. etc. etc. (k) Nouns combining the characteristics of types (f) and (g); in this type are included nouns which in Arabic have medial or final "ayn or medial hamza. Examples: vak:t `time' < Arabic waqt, nev: `sort' < Arabic naw", ye:s `despair' < Arabic ya's, kair `profundity' < Arabic qa'r (I, 17 (c), 18). Singular abs. vak:t nev: ye:s kair acc. vakt: nev': ye's: ka'ri gen. vakt:n nev':n ye'sin ka'rin dat. vakte nev'e ye'se ka'ra loc. vak:tte nev:de ye:ste kairda abl. vak:tten nev:den ye:sten kairdan Plural abs. vak:tler nev:ler ye:sler kairlar acc. vak:tler: nev:ler: ye:sler: kairlari etc. etc. etc. etc. To this type belong Ser: `Muslim religious law', acc. Ser':; def: `repulsion', acc. def':; ref: `elevation', acc. ref':; be:s `harm', acc. be's:. There are two nouns in use which in the original Arabic have hamza as their final consonant: Sey `thing' < shay'; cUz `part' < juz'. These are declined as type (a), except that cUz is usually spelled with an apostrophe before vowel endings: acc. cUz'U gen. cUz'Un, dat. cUz'e. 7. Summary of case-endings. The letters in brackets appear after vowel-stems. The table is valid except for nouns of type (f) and for su `water', which declines: sing. su, suyu, suyun, suya, suda, sudan ; pl. sular, etc. Last vowel of abs.sing. e or : 0 or U a or i o or u Singular acc. -(y): -(y)U -(y)i -(y)u gen. -(n):n -(n)Un -(n)in -(n)un dat. -(y)e -(y)a loc. -de/te -da/ta abl. -den/ten -dan/tan Plural acc. -ler: -lari gen. -ler:n -larin dat. -lere -lara loc. -lerde -larda abl. -lerden -lardan 8. Uses of the cases. A case-ending is attached only to the final element in a nominal group; in this respect the Turkish case- endings behave like English prepositions and not like the case- endings of inflected languages such as Latin: `good citizens', :y: [MISSING LINE] bon-orum civ-ium. d0rt kere dokuz `four times nine'; d0rt kere dokuz-un kare k0kU `the square root of four times nine'. 9. The absolute form. This has five functions: (a) Nominative, as subject of a sentence or as complement of a verb meaning `to be, to become' or the like: kapi aCildi `the door was opened'; ben BaSbakan olmiyacaGim `I shall not become Prime Minister'. See also #10, end. (b) Vocative : Ahmet! Taks:! (c) Indefinite accusative, i.e. as the undefined object of a verb: gazete Cikarmak zor b:r :S `to publish newspapers is a hard job'; b:let satiyorlar `they are selling tickets'; s:gara :Cmez `he does not smoke cigarettes'; 0kUz aldi `he bought oxen'; b:r 0kUz aldi `he bought an ox'. [MISSING LINE(S)] [SUSPENDED AFFIXATION!] one grammatical ending serves two or more parallel words : sihhat ve af:yet-te `in health and well-being'. One can put the case- ending on both words--s:hhat-te ve af:yet-te--just as one can repeat the preposition in English--`in health and in well-being'-- but this is less usual. (e) Many adverbs of time are originally, nouns in the absolute form, e.g. bugUn `today'. 10. The accusative case. It marks the definite object of a verb, i.e. an object defined: [MISSING LINE][S?] b:r :S `to publish this newspaper is a hard job'. (b) By a personal pronoun, suffixed or independent: ev-:m:z-: or b:z:m ev: k:raladi `he has rented our house'. (c) By its nature, e.g. as a place-name, a personal name or title, a personal or demonstrative pronoun: Adana'yi gezd:k `we toured Adana'; Hasan'i hemen tanidim `I recognized Hasan immediately'; Profes0r-U sela=mladi `he greeted the Professor'; s:z-: :lg:lend:rmez `it does not concern you'; bu-nu n:C:n yaptin `why have you done this?' (d) By having been mentioned previously,i.e.in situations where English uses the definite article: 0kUz-U aldi `he bought the ox'; k:tab-i okumadim `I have not read the book'. (e) By being otherwise adequately defined, e.g. by a participle, The use of b:r, the `indefinite article', in such circumstances does not necessarily make the object indefinite; see XVI, 4. A descriptive adjective is not in itself sufficient to make an object definite; compare b:r mav: kumaS :st:yor `she wants a blue material' with mav: kumaS-i seCt: `she chose the blue material'. The second object of a factitive verb, i.e. a complementary object, remains in the absolute form: onu Val: tay:n ett:ler `they appointed him Governor'; I+stanbul'u I+stanbul yapan budur `what makes Istanbul Istanbul is this'; sen: arkadaS sanirdim `I used to think you a friend'. 11. The genitive case. The genitive suffix shows that the sub- stantive to which it is attached stands in a possessive or qualifying relationship to another substantive; see #17. The substantive in the genitive case can also stand predicatively: ha=k:m:yet millet-:n-d:r `sovereignty belongs to (``is of'') the nation'; bUtUn suC s:z-:n `all the guilt is yours' (`is of-you'). Certain postpositions, originally nouns, are construed with the genitive of personal pronouns; see VII, 3. 12. The dative case. This expresses: (a) The indirect object of a verb: mektubu Al:'ye g0sterd:m `I showed the letter to Ali'; h:zmetC:-ye b:r palto vereceG:z `we are going to give the servant a coat'. It may translate the English `for' as in h:zmetC:-ye b:r palto alacaGiz `we are going to buy a coat for the servant'. (b) Place whither: TUrk:ye'ye d0ndUler `they returned to Turkey'; yer-e dUStU `it fell to the ground'; S:Sey: masa-ya koydu `he put the bottle on the table'; borc-a batmiyalim `let us not plunge into debt'; sandalye-ye oturdum `I seated myself on the chair' (but the locative is used in sandalye-de oturu- yordum `I was sitting on the chair'); b:r orman-a g:zlend:ler `they hid in a forest'. (c) Purpose: kiz, C:Cek dermeG-e Cikiyor `the girl is going out to pick flowers'; talebe, :mt:han-a hazirlaniyor `the student is preparing for the examination'. (d) Price: bunu kaC-a aldin? `for how much did you buy this?'; g0z-e g0z, d:S-e d:S `eye for eye, tooth for tooth'. Turkish idiom requires a dative with a number of verbs whose English equivalents take a direct object, among the commonest being: baSlamak `to begin', deGmek and dokunmak `to touch', benzemek `to resemble', devam etmek `to continue' ermek and varmak `to reach', g:rmek `to enter', yardim etmek `to help'. For postpositions with the dative, i.e. postpositions modifying or narrowing down the meaning of the dative see VII,4. 13. The locative case. This expresses location, which may be: (a) In place: t:yatro-da `at the theatre'; su-da `in the water'; yer-de `on the ground'; ben-de para yok `I have no money on me'; radyo-da b:r vazo var `there is a vase on the wireless'. (b) In time: Ramazan-da `in Ramadan' (the month of fasting); beS eylu=l-de `on 5 September'. (c) In an abstract: radyo-da b:r konuSma var `there is a talk on the wireless'; :ht:yarlik-ta `in old age'; sihhat-te `in health'; g:tmek-te `in going'. The locative is used with ex- pressions denoting shape, size, colour, and age, where English idiom varies between `of' and `in': yumurta Sekl:n-de b:r taS `a stone in the shape of an egg'; on metre uzunluGun-da b:r :p `a cord of (lit.``in'') ten metres' length'; kahve reng:n-de b:r Sapka `a hat of coffee-colour'; y:rm: yaSinda `twenty years old' (`in the age of twenty'); bu f:k:r-de deG:l:m `I am not of this opinion'. 14. The ablative case. This case expresses point of departure: (a) Place from which: Seh:r-den ayrildi `he departed from the city'; raGbet-ten dUStU `it fell from esteem, ceased to be in vogue'; bu g:d:S onu yer:n-den edecek `this behaviour will cost him his job' (`will make him from his position'). (b) place through which: pencere-den g:rd: `he entered by the window'; hang: yol-dan g:d:l:r? `by which road does one go?'; s:z: telefon-dan ariyorlar `you are wanted on the telephone' (`they are seeking you through the telephone'); haber radyo-dan yayildi 'the news was broadcast' (`was spread through the radio'); hirsizi kolun-dan tuttum `I caught the thief by his arm'; k:tabi b:r yer:n-den daha aCtim `I opened the book at another page' (`through one place more'). In such uses as o kiz kafa-dan sakattir `that girl is weak in the head' and :ht:yar b0brekler:n-den rahatsizdir `the old man has kidney- trouble' (`is ill through his kidneys'), the ablative is to be explained as like that in the two previous examples, i.e. as indicating the point through which someone or something is affected, rather than as causal. (c) The causal use is very frequent : muvaffakiyet-ten sarhoS `drunk from success'; aClik-tan b:tk:n `exhausted from hunger'; ne-den? `why?' (`from what?'); on-dan `for that reason' (`from that'). Hence the use of the ablative with verbs such as korkmak `to fear', SUphelenmek `to suspect', nefret etmek `to loathe'. hoSlanmak `to like'; what in English would be the object of the emotion is in Turkish its source. (d) The second member of a comparison is put in the ablative: TUrk:ye LUbnan'dan bUyUktUr `Turkey is bigger than Lebanon', i.e. Turkey is big if we take Lebanon as our point of reference. (e) The ablative denotes the material from which something is made: naylon-dan yapilmiS b:r balik aGi `a fishing-net made of nylon'; s0z gUmUS-ten, sUku=t altin-dan `speech is silver, silence is gold'; ateS-ten g0mlek `shirt of fire' (a proverbial expression; cf. `shirt of Nessus') (f) The partitive use: komSular-dan b:r: `one of the neigh- bours'; Uyeler-den b:rkaCi `several of the members'. Under this heading belongs haf:f-ten almak `to take lightly', lit. `to take from the light', i.e. to take as belonging to the light. (g) The ablative expresses price, but not synonymously with the dative: bu elmalari kaC-tan aldin? `at what price did you buy these apples?' i.e. at what price each or per kilo. With the substitution of the dative kaC-a the meaning would be `what was the total amount you paid for these apples?' For postpositions with the ablative see VII, 5. 15. Personal suffixes. The suffixed personal pronouns, indicating possession, are: After After consonants vowels Singular 1 -:m -m 2 -:n -n 3 -: -s: Plural 1 -:m:z -m:z 2 -in:z -n:z 3 -ler: Thus a singular noun with the third-person plural suffix, e.g. el-ler:, Cocuk-lari, is identical in form with the plural of the noun with the third-person singular suffix (eller-:, Cocuklar-i) and with the accusative plural. Consonant stems with the third- singular suffix have the same form as the accusative singular while with the second-singular suffix they have the same form as the genitive. Consonant-stems: el akSam k0y Cocuck hand evening village child my el:m akSamim k0yUm CocuGum your(sing.) el:n akSamin k0yUn CocuGun his, her,its el: akSami k0yU CocuGu our el:m:z akSamimiz k0yUmUz CocuGumuz your (pl.) el:n:z akSaminiz k0yUnUz CocuGunuz their eller: akSamlari k0yler: Cocuklari Vowel-stems: anne kapi 0lCU korku mother door measure fear my annem kapim 0lCUm korkum your(sing.) annen kapin 0lCUn korkun his, her,its annes: kapisi 0lCUsU korkusu our annem:z kapimiz 0lCUmUz korkumuz your (pl.) annen:z kapiniz 0lCUnUz korkunuz their anneler: kapilari 0lCUler: korkulari Two anomalies: su `water' is treated as a consonant-stem (cf. #7), while aGabey `elder brother' (pronounced a**bi**, with the accent on the a**) behaves like a vowel-stem, though in the spelling this is acknowledged only with the suffix of the third-person singular: Pronounced my suyum aGabey:m a**bim your (sing.) suyun aGabey:n a**bin his, her, its suyu aGabeys: a**bi**si our suyumuz aGabey:m:z a**bi**miz your (pl.) suyunuz aGabey:n:z a**bi**niz their sulari aGabeyler: a**bi**leri The personal suffixes follow the suffix of the plural, except that two -lers never occur together, so that -: and not -ler: is used for the third-person plural suffix after plural nouns: eller Cocuklar hands children my eller:m Cocuklarim your (sing.) eller:n Cocuklarin his, her, its eller: Cocuklari our eller:m:z Cocuklarimiz your (pl.) eller:n:z Cocuklariniz their eller: Cocuklari Thus Cocuklari can mean `his/her children', `their children', or `their child', as well as `the children' (acc.), while Cocuklarin can mean `your children' or `of the children'. In the colloquial, kardeS:mler means `my brother and his family', teyzemler `my aunt and her family' (cf. #2, third para- graph), whereas kardeSler:m is `my brothers' and teyzeler:m `my aunts'. 16. Personal suffixes followed by case-suffixes. An n appears between the suffix of the third person and any case-suffix, the result, with the singular of consonant-stems and all plurals, being identical in shape with the second-singular suffix plus the case- suffix. Thus the locative of el-: `his hand' is el-:-n-de and of el-:n `your hand' el-:n-de, while the dative of eller-: `his hands' is eller-:-n-e and of eller-:n `your hands' eller-:n-e. This ambiguity does not arise with the singular of vowel-stems: `from his mother' is anne-si-n-den but `from your mother' is anne-n- den ; `at his door' is kapi-si-n-da but `at your door' is kapi-n-da. As late as the eighteenth century, the third-person suffix with the suffix of the accusative could be -in as well as -:n:. Some examples are given of the declension of nouns with the third-person suffix. There is no need to set out the declensions with the other personal suffixes, since, for example, eller:m:z `our hands', k0yUnUz `your village', Cocuklarim `my children' decline exactly like unsuffixed consonant-stems. Cf. the declen- sions of el, k0y, and akSam respectively in #6 (a) and (c). el-: anne-s: k0y-U his hand his mother his village acc. el:n: annes:n: k0yUnU gen. el:n:n annes:n:n k0yUnUn dat. el:ne annes:ne k0yUne loc. el:nde annes:nde k0yUnde abl. el:nden annes:nden k0yUnden ad-i kari-si CocuG-u his name his wife his child acc. adini karisini CocuGunu gen. adinin karisinin CocuGunun dat. adina karisina CocuGuna loc. adinda karisinda CocuGunda abl. adindan karisindan CocuGundan The principle of suspended affixation (#9 (d)) must be borne in mind: tebr:k ve teSekkUrler:m: sunarim `I offer my con- gratulations and thanks', the -ler-:m-: applying to both nouns. The suffix of the first-person singular added to gUzel `beautiful' and can `soul' makes gUzel:m and canim, used as adjectives of endearment even with nouns with suffixes of other persons: gUzel:m p:yano-su `her lovely piano'; canim TUrkCem:z `our beloved Turkish'. 17. The izafet group. The commonest function of the suffix of the third person is to link one noun to another in a relationship most conveniently described by the Turkish term :zafet `annexa- tion'. In English one noun may qualify another in two ways. In the first, the qualifying noun is put into the genitive: Land's End, St. Antony's College, soldiers of the Queen. In the second, no grammatical mechanism but simple juxtaposition is involved: Lane End, Oxford University, Palace guard. The two types of izafet correspond fairly closely to these two English patterns, with the difference that in both Turkish types the qualified noun takes the third-person suffix. The classical Turkish grammarians recognize a third type of izafet in which neither noun has a suffix, namely, when the first is a noun of material: altin b:lez:k `gold bracelet', dem:r perde `iron curtain'. If we are concerned only with the facts of modern Turkish, however, it is more practical to regard names of materials as being indifferently used as nouns or adjectives, as in English. Leaving the `izafet of material' aside, therefore, the two types of izafet are the definite or possessive and the indefinite. The definite izafet is employed when the first element is a definite person or thing to which or within which the second belongs. The first noun has the genitive suffix, the second has the suffix of the third person: uzman-in rapor-u `the expert's report' (`of-the-expert his-report'), hafta-nin gUnler-: `the days of the week', uzman-in kend:-s: `the expert himself' (`of-the- expert his-self'), I+stanbul'un kend:-s: `Istanbul itself'. The indefinite izafet is used when the relationship between the two elements is merely qualificatory and not so intimate or possessive as that indicated by the definite izafet. The second noun has the suffix of the third person, but the first noun remains in the absolute form. As a working rule, an indefinite izafet group can be turned into intelligible (though not necessarily normal) English by the use of a hyphen: Ankara Sehr-: `Ankara-city'; seC:m kurul-u `election-committee'; TUrk:ye Cumhur:yet-: `the Turkey-Republic'. The distinction between the two types is seen in the following pairs of examples: U+n:vers:te-n:n profes0rler-: `the professors of the University'; Un:versite profes0rler-: `university pro- fessors'. Orhan'in :sm-: `Orhan's name'; Orhan :sm-: `the name ``Orhan'''. k:mse-n:n cevab-i `nobody's answer'; k:mse cevab-i `the answer ``nobody'''. Sultan Ahmed':n tUrbe-s: `Sultan Ahmet's tomb'; Sultan Ahmet cam:-: `the Sultan Ahmet Mosque'. AtatUrk'Un ev-: `AtatUrk's house'; AtatUrk Bulvar-i `the AtatUrk Boulevard'. Coban-in kiz-i `the shepherd's daughter'; Coban kiz-i `the shepherd-girl'. Suspended affixation operates in izafet too: halk-in aci ve sev:nCler: `the sorrows and joys of the people', i.e. aci-lar-i ve sev:nC-ler-:. A special use of the indefinite izafet with proper names is seen in Bek:r Capkin-i `that rascal of a Bekir'; Nur: serser:-s: `that vagabond of a Nuri'; Ethem hirsiz-i `that thief of an Ethem'. The qualifier may be indefinite in expressions denoting family relationships such as Bedr: eS-: Fatma `Bedri's wife Fatima'; Hasan kiz-i Sev:m `Hasan's daughter oevim'; Isma:l oGlu Mehmet `Ismail's son Mehmet'. Hence a common type of sur- name ending in -oGlu; cf. our Johnson rather than John's son. Conversely, villagers use personal names without the third-person suffix after the father's name or family name in the genitive: Ahmed':n Mustafa `Ahmet's son Mustafa'; Ar:fler-:n Abbas the Arifs' son Abbas'; Kara Ahmetler-:n Leyla= `the Black Ahmets' daughter Leyla'. In the last two examples, the `family name' is the father's name with the plural suffix. When an adjective, a demonstrative, or an adverb comes between the two elements of an izafet group, the first element must be in the genitive; cf. the English `committee meeting' but `the committee's next meeting'. I+stanbul cam:ler-: `the Istanbul mosques' but I+stanbul'un tar:hi= cam:ler-: `the historic mosques of Istanbul'; mahkeme karar-i `court decision' but mahkeme-n:n bu karar-i `this decision of the court'; su donma-si `freezing of water' but suy-un b:rdenb:re donma-si `the water's suddenly freezing'. This rule does not apply when the intervening adjective is part of a compound noun such as bUyUkelC: `ambassador' (lit. `great envoy') : TUrk:ye BUyUkel- C:s: `the Ambassador of Turkey'. Compare, however, TUrk:ye'- n:n bUyUk Seh:rler-: `the great cities of Turkey'. [SOMETHING MISSING HERE?] ordu subaylari army-officers bu ordu subaylari these army-officers bu ordu-nun subaylari the officers of this army bu ordu-nun bu subaylari these officers of this army 18. Words indicating nationality. Those formed by suffixing -l: (IV, 5) to the name of a country, e.g. Kibris-li `Cypriot', Dani- marka-li `Danish', may be nouns or adjectives. All other words indicating nationality, e.g. TUrk, Ing:l:z, Fransiz, Alman, are nouns and are therefore joined to a following noun by an indefinite izafet : I+ng:l:z edeb:yat-i `English literature'; Fransiz askerler-: `French soldiers'. As the singular denotes a class, as well as one member of that class, such expressions must be regarded as meaning not `the-Englishman his-literature', `the-Frenchman his-soldiers', but `the-English their-literature', `the-French their- soldiers'. A definite izafet may be used instead if it is desired to show a more intimate relationship: TUrk ruh-u `the Turkish soul' but TUrk-Un ruh-u `the soul of the Turk'. The colloquialism TUrk :S, used in self-disparagement when something goes wrong, as we might say `a typical piece of British muddle', is rather puzzling, since one would expect TUrk :S-: `Turkish work'. One explanation is that this expression is not Turkish at all, but German; a relic of the days when German officers were training the Ottoman Army. That is to say, it is an expostulatory TUrkisch! originally accompanied by a heaven- ward rolling of the eyes. Alternatively, it might be an imitation, deriving from the same period, of an attempt to say `Turkish work' on the part of a foreigner unacquainted with the finer points of the language. The former explanation seems more likely. For `American' two words exist, Amer:kan and Amer:kali. The former is a noun, used only in izafet, and means `the body politic of all the Americans'; it bears the same relationship to Amer:kalilar as `the English' does to `the Englishmen' and is used to qualify things, whereas Amer:kali is an adjective or noun denoting persons of American nationality: Amer:kan hUkU- met-: `the American government', b:r Amer:kan uCaG-i `an American aircraft'; but b:r Amer:kali `an American', Amer:kali subaylar `American officers'. `American Ambassador', however, is Amer:kan BUyUkelC:-s:, for Amer:kali BUyUkelC: would mean `Ambassador of American nationality'. The use of b:r Amer:kan for `an American' is a vulgarism. A similar pair of words exists for `Italian': I+talyan and I+talyali. The latter, however, is virtually obsolete. Nouns of nationality may be used in apposition with other nouns, instead of in izafet, when denoting membership of a people rather than of a nation: TUrk l:derler-: and TUrk l:derler both mean `Turkish leaders', but the first denotes leaders of the Turkish nation whereas the second denotes leaders of the Turkish community in Cyprus. Similarly, b:r Yahud: asker-: is a soldier of the Jewish nation, an Israeli soldier, while b:r Yahud: asker is a soldier of any nation who happens to be a Jew. An apposition is also possible if the nationality of the person is not stressed, or if the second element is personified; e.g. b:r Rus jeolog is a geologist who happens to be a Russian, while b:r Rus s0zcU-sU is `a Russian spokesman'; TUrk I+stanbul `Turkish Istanbul'. There is some fluctuation of usage with the words Sovyet and komUn:st; some refer to the Soviet government and the Com- munist bloc as Sovyet hUkUmet-: and KomUn:st blok-u; others prefer Sovyet hUkUmet and KomUn:st blok. Names of continents are used as qualifiers of things: Avrupa baSkentler-: `European capitals' (`Europe its-capitals'), Afr:ka neh:rler-: `African rivers', Asya memleketler-: `Asian coun- tries'. The forms in -l: are used only of persons: Afr:kalilar `Africans', Asyali gazetec:ler `Asian journalists', Avrupali tur:stler `European tourists'. 19. The izafet chain. An izafet group may itself be qualified by a preceding noun: :l seC:m kurul-u `province election-com- mittee'; Ankara Kiz L:se-s: `Ankara Girls' Lyce=*e'. Only the last noun in the chain has the third-person suffix, which does double duty: not only does it link kurul and l:se to their im- mediate qualifiers seC:m and kiz; it also links the groups seC:m kurulu and kiz l:ses: to their qualifiers :l and Ankara. A definite izafet is also possible in such situations: hakem-:n favl karar-i `the referee's decision of ``foul'' '; gUn-Un ded:kodu konu-su `the gossip-topic of the day'. In Bulgar:stan'in I+stanbul BaSkonsolosluG-u `the Istanbul Consulate-General of Bulgaria' the first qualifier is in the genitive because its re- lationship with the qualified word is closer than is that of the second qualifier. An izafet group may qualify a following noun: D:yanet I+Sler-: BakanliG-i `Religion-Affairs Ministry'. Here it will be seen that both qualified nouns have the third-person suffix; that of I+Sler links it to its qualifier D:yanet, while that of Bakanlik links it to its qualifier, the group D:yanet I+Sler-:. Another example: sene son-u :mt:hanlar-i `year-end examinations'. The distinction between this pattern and that of Ankara Kiz L:ses: may be seen by comparing Ford a:le araba-si `the Ford family-car' with Ford a:le-s: araba-si `the Ford-family car'. Other possibilities are: Ford a:le-s:-n:n araba-si `the car of the Ford-family', Ford'un a:le-s:-n:n araba-si `the car of Ford's family', and Ford'un a:le araba-si `Ford's family- car'. As a rule (but see ##20, 21, 24), any noun in an izafet chain which does not have the third-person suffix is not qualified by a preceding noun. In Cumhur:yet Halk Part:-s: `Republican People's Party',' as Halk has no suffix we know it is not in izafet with Cumhur:yet, so the literal meaning is not `Republic-People Party' but `Republic People-Party'. In TUrk D:l Kurum-u, the fact that D:l has no suffix shows that it is not qualified by TUrk, so the phrase means not `Turkish-Language Society' but `Turkish Language-Society'. TUrk D:l-: Derg:-s:, however, means `Turkish-Language Journal'. So too in mak:ne Ser:d-: mUrek- keb-:; the second word is qualified by the first and both together qualify the third: `typewriter-ribbon ink'. The izafet chain can be extended as required: I+stanbul U+n:vers:te-s: Edeb:yat FakUlte-s: TUrk Edeb:yat-i Pro- fes0r-U `Istanbul-University Literature-Faculty Turk-Literature Professor', i.e. `Professor of Turkish Literature of the Faculty of Letters of the University of Istanbul'. I+zm:r O+rme Sanay:-: I+SC:ler-: Send:ka-si `Izmir Knitting-Industry Workers' Union'. The rules and examples given should enable the student to unravel any izafet chain, but he may sometimes encounter a definite izafet where he might have expected an indefinite or vice versa; individual authors' ideas of style may vary. It is entirely a matter of taste whether one writes CHP aday-i `the RPP candidate' or CHP'n:n aday-i `the RPP's candidate'. Most writers keep the number of genitives in an izafet chain down to the minimum that is consistent with intelligibility. For example, in Bohemya Kirallar-i saray-i-nin yen: sa=k:n-: `the new inhabitant of the palace of the Kings of Bohemia' Kirallar-i-n:n might have been expected as denoting the owners of the palace. But saray-i had to be in the genitive because the adjective yen: separates it from sa=kin-:, and the juxtaposition of two genitives is avoided as far as possible. The partitive use of the ablative makes it possible to dispense with one genitive, e.g. in kom:te Uyeler-:-n-den b:r-:-n:n oy-u `the vote of one of the members of the committee'. 20. Place-names consisting in an izafet group. These tend to drop the third-person suffix. Kadik0y on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus was Kadi-k0y-U (`judge-village') barely a generation ago, the k0yU declining as shown in #16. Now the k0y declines as shown in #6 (a). This tendency is doubtless helped by the existence of some other place-names similarly compounded of a noun and k0y which, if they ever had the third-person suffix, lost it long ago, e.g. Arnavutk0y and Bakirk0y, and of some compounded of an adjective and k0y, e.g. YeS:lk0y. Another contributory factor may be that the accent in izafet groups is always on the first element, and in place-names is towards the beginning of the word, so that the third-person suffix in the absolute case would tend to be swallowed up. Indeed, the growing practice, frowned on by purists, is for sokak `street' to stand in izafet without the third-person suffix. `Grocer Street' is 'properly Bakkal SokaG-i, but one often hears--and reads--Bakkal Sokak. The suffix is secure for the moment in names of roads, squares, hills, and impasses: Babia=l: Cadde-s:, HUrr:yet Meydan-i, F:ncancilar YokuS-u, Korsan C+ikmaz-i. European influence has for some years been helping this tendency (which is, however, native in origin), e.g. in names of new office-buildings (han), banks, restaurants, and hotels: Boyacilar Han, Pamuk Bank (with the western Bank instead of the Turkish Banka), Yildiz Lokanta, Paris Otel, in place of Hani, Bankasi, Lokantasi, Otel:. Even such gallicisms as R:storan Yildiz and Otel Par:s have begun to appear in Istanbul. 21. Culinary terms without izafet. The third-person suffix is lacking in some time-honoured names of dishes, such as S:S kebap `skewer roast', izgara k0fte `grill mincemeat', kuzu p:rzola `lamb chop', all originally cooks' and waiters' jargon and therefore as untypical of ordinary speech as `eggs and chips twice'. Analogy with these may help to explain why a recently marketed tomato ketchup is labelled Domates KetCap and not KetCapi (though `tomato-juice' is domates suyu not su). The main reason is probably that the manufacturer wishes to familiarize the public with the name ketCap and therefore presents it in the absolute form without bothering about grammar. 22. Third-person suffix with substantivizing and defining force, The third-person suffix is used as a syntactic device for creating and defining nouns. The stages in the development of this use are exemplified thus: (a) :S-:n fena-si Su `the bad of the business is this'; edeb:yat-in :y:-s: `the good of literature, good literature'; geceler-:n gUzel-:, yildizli-si `the beautiful night is the starry one' (`of-the-nights, their-beautiful is their-starry')- (b) doGru-su `honestly, to tell you the truth' (`the true-of-it'). Here the antecedent is vaguely the matter under discussion. (c) zeng:n-: ayni Sey: s0ylUyor, fak:r-: ayni Sey: s0ylUyor `the rich man says the same thing, the poor man says the same thing', lit. `the-rich-of-it, the poor-of-it'; i.e. of people at large. In s:zden akillisi yok `there is none cleverer than you' s:zden akilli `cleverer than you' is an adjectival phrase, substantivized by the third-person suffix. Cf. b:r-: `one of them, someone' (V, 7). (d) bundan sonra `after this'; bundan sonrasi `that which is after this, what happens next', lit. `the after this of it', where the `it' is the scheme of things entire. Probably under this head is to be sought the explanation for burasi, Surasi, etc. (XII, 12). 23. The Janus construction. By this term is meant the curious facing-both-ways construction wherein, when two people who are related or otherwise closely connected are mentioned in one sentence, each is defined by a third-person suffix linking him to the other: oGl-u baba-si-na b:r mektup yazdi `the son wrote a letter to the father', lit. `his--the father's--son wrote a letter to his--the son's--father'. kiz-i-ni vermed:G: :C:n anne ve baba-si-ni 0ldUrdU (newspaper headline) `he killed the mother and father because they did not give their daughter ' babalar-i-nin cezasini oGullar-i Cekecek `the sons will suffer the fathers' punishment' (`their sons ... their fathers''). hasta-si doktor-u-nu ariyor `the patient is seeking his doctor' (`his patient ... his doctor'). hoca-si talebe-s:-ne bakar `the teacher looks after the student' 24. Suffixes with izafet groups. We saw in #19 that in izafet chains the third-person suffix does double duty and is not repeated. There are two small classes of words which can have two personal suffixes: pronouns such as b:r-:-s: (V,7; and cf. Seys: < Sey-:-s: V, 20) and frozen izafet groups such as yUzbaSi `captain'. Origin- ally this was yUz baS-i `hundred its-head' but through frequent use has come to be treated as a simple noun, declining like tarla (#6(d)) and not ad-i (#16), e.g. the plural is yUzbaSilar not yUzbaSlari. It can therefore take personal suffixes: yUzbaSim `my captain', yUzbaSisi `his captain', etc. See also XIV, 33. Otherwise no word can have more than one personal suffix. When a third-person possessor of an izafet group is to be indicated the third-person suffix is not repeated: yaz `summer', tat:l -holiday'; yaz tat:l-: `summer holiday' or `his summer holiday'. When a first or second person is the possessor, the third-person suffix of the izafet gives way to the suffix of the first or second person: summer holiday summer holidays my yaz tat:l:m yaz tat:ller:m your yaz tat:l:n yaz tat:ller:n his yaz tat:l: yaz tat:ller: our yaz tat:l:m:z yaz tat:ller:m:z your yaz tat:l:n:z yaz tat:ller:n:z their yaz tat:ller: yaz tat:ller: All the possible ambiguities can be resolved by the use of a noun or personal pronoun in the genitive: Ahmed':n yaz tat:l: Ahmet's summer holiday onun yaz tat:l: his summer holiday onun yaz tat:ller: his summer holidays onlarin yaz tat:l: their summer holiday onlarin yaz tat:ller: their summer holidays Similarly, I+zm:r bUro-su may mean `the Izmir office' or `his Izmir office': onun I+zm:r bUrosu his Izmir office S:rket-:n I+zm:r bUrosu the company's Izmir office When the suffixes -l: and -c: (IV, 4, 5) are added to an izafet group, the third-person suffix is dropped: Gece ad-i `the name ``Night'''; Gece ad-li S::r `the poem named ``Night'''. Avrupa fermuar-i `European fastener' (French fermoir); Avrupa fermuar-li Cantalar `bags fitted with European fasteners'; su yol-u `water-conduit'; su yol-cu `man responsible for the upkeep of water-conduits'. 25. The vocative use of the third-person suffix. In English a woman may, in the presence of her child, address her brother as `Uncle',just as the child would do. In Turkish she would address him as dayi-si `his uncle'. Similarly, if an English-speaking child is being teased by another and runs off calling `Mother!' the other child may mockingly echo his cry. In Turkish, however, the mocker calls not Anne! but Annes:! 26. Persian izafet. It was because of the extensive use of this alien grammatical feature, coupled with the borrowing of an immense Arabic and Persian vocabulary, that the literary and administrative language of the Ottoman Empire was largely unintelligible to most of its Turkish subjects. In Persian the qualifier follows the qualified, the opposite of Turkish usage, and the qualified is joined to its qualifier, noun or adjective, by an i, as in koh-i-nur `mountain of light' and koh-i-bozorg `great mountain'. This device was used in Ottoman as in Persian, to link Arabic as well as Persian words: nokta-: nazar `point of view'; AbdUlham:d-: san: `Abdulhamid the Second'. The linking : was usually sub- jected to the Turkish vowel harmony and was separated from a preceding long vowel by a y : S+ura-yi Devlet `Council of State'; these words, in Turkish izafet, would be Devlet S+ura-si. Ana- logous violations of normal word-order are found in English: court martial, blood royal, law merchant. As if this was not enough, Ottoman followed Persian in borrow- ing from Arabic the curse of grammatical gender, from which Turkish and Persian were born free. In Arabic, dawlat- `state, dynasty, empire', whence Turkish devlet, is feminine. In Ottoman, therefore, the Arabic adjectives meaning `high' and `Ottoman' ("ali** > al:, "Uthma**ni** > Osman:) took their Arabic feminine forms in the official name of the Empire: Devlet-: al:ye-: Osman:ye `The High Ottoman State'. The Turkish words for `some' and `same', bazi and ayni, are respectively the Arabic ba'd `part' and 'ayn `counterpart' with the Persian izafet, and mean literally `part of' and `the counterpart of'. Purists condemned the use of native Turkish words in Persian izafet, but many Turkish words were in fact so used in Ottoman phraseology, e.g. ordu `army' and sancak `banner' in ordu-yu hUmayun and sancaGi Ser:f, `Imperial Army' and `Noble Banner', i.e. the standard of the Prophet. Such phrases were classed as galat-i meShur `widely disseminated mistake', i.e. solecism legitimized by usage. The plural of this term, incidentally, was galatat-i meShure, the adjective being made feminine to agree with the feminine plural noun. An oft-quoted saying runs: galat-i meShur I+gat-: fas:hten yeGd:r `the generally used solecism is better than the chaste locution'. Nowadays, Persian izafet compounds which have become part of the standard vocabulary are usually spelled as one word: aksi- seda `echo' (`reflection of voice'); h:kmet:vucUt `raison d'e=tre'; aklisel:m `common sense'. These present no difficulty because they will be found in the dictionary. In less well-acclimatized compounds the rule is to separate the elements, with a hyphen between the first and the vowel of the Persian izafet: cer:de-i Camur `organ of the gutter-press' (`newspaper of mud'); vuzuh-u beyan `clarity of exposition'; muhtac-i h:mmet `needful of help'; Uful-U nabehenga=m `untimely demise'; mefhum-u muhal:f `contrary concept, converse'. Some writers, however, make compounds of either type into two separate words, the first incorporating the vowel of the izafet; h:kmet: vUcut, vuzuhu beyan, etc. Further, some may limit the vowel harmony, rejecting u and U and writing, e.g. vuzuh-i beyan, Uful-: nabehenga=m, as being closer to the original Persian pronunciation. III. THE ADJECTIVE 1. General observations. The dividing line between noun and adjective is a thin one, but is still worth drawing. If we take as the criterion of a noun the permissibility of using the plural, case, and personal suffixes after it, or the indefinite article b:r before it, very few of the words classed as adjectives in the dictionary will be excluded. bUyUk `big, old', bUyUkler:m `my elders'; hasta `ill', b:r hasta `a sick man'; genC `young', genCler:n `of the young'; Avrupali `European', Avrupaliya `to the European'. The only large class of exceptions, i.e. of adjectives which are not used as nouns, are those formed with the Turkish suffixes -s:, -(:)ms:, -(:)mtrak, and -(s)el, the Arabic -i=, and the Persian -ane and -vari=, to which may be added recent borrowings like demokrat:k and kUltUrel. On the other hand, if we take as the criterion of an adjective the permissibility of putting it in the comparative and superlative degrees, vast numbers of nouns will be excluded. In other words, although most adjectives can be nouns, the converse does not hold good. 2. Attributive adjectives. These precede their nouns: cesur adamlar `brave men'; uzun yol `the long road'. Two exceptions: (a) kare and kUp, `square' and `cubic', follow names of units of length, as in French from which they are borrowed: Kibris'in yUz 0lCUmU 3.572 m:l kare (9.251 k:lometre kare) d:r `the area of Cyprus is 3,572 square miles (9,251 square kilometres)'. (b) merhum `the late' is sometimes used after the name of the deceased instead of before, in imitation of Arabic usage. 3. The indefinite article. b:r `one' may be so termed although the name is not entirely appropriate. One reason is that the noun introduced by b:r may be in the defined accusative; see XVI,4. Another difference from what we understand in English by the indefinite article is that b:r may introduce a noun in the plural, the effect being vaguer than with a singular noun: b:r Sey mirildandi `he mumbled something', but b:r Seyler mirildandi `he mumbled something or other'; b:r zamanlar ben de Cocuktum `once I too was a child', where b:r zaman would be too precise: `at one time'. In this latter example it should also be noted that b:r is not used before Cocuk, although the English has `a child'; its omission is customary with the complement of such verbs as `to be' and `to become'. When it serves as an indefinite article, b:r usually comes be- tween adjective and noun: bUyUk b:r tarla `a large field', gUzel b:r bahCe `a beautiful garden'. When it means `one', it must precede the adjective, just like any other numeral: :k: kUCUk tarla satti, b:r bUyUk tarla aldi `he sold two small fields, he bought one large field'. This must not be taken to imply that b:r when it precedes an adjective and noun is always to be translated by `one'; English idiom may sometimes call for `a' or `any' (cf. XVI, 4). The key to understanding this point lies in the basic principle of Turkish syntax: whatever precedes, qualifies. The essential difference between gUzel b:r bahCe and b:r gUzel bahCe, both of which may translate `a beautiful garden', is that the first means a beautiful member of the class `garden', the second a member of the class `beautiful garden'. gUzel b:r bahCe is a beautiful garden as distinct from a less beautiful or even a frankly ugly garden; b:r gUzel bahCe is a beautiful garden as distinct from a beautiful meadow or an ugly forest. 4. Comparison of adjectives. The comparative degree is expressed by putting the second member of the comparison (introduced in English by `than') in the ablative case: aGir `heavy', kurSun-dan aGir `heavier than lead'. `Less ... than' is translated by putting az `little' between the second member in the ablative case and the adjective: kurSundan az aGir `less heavy than lead'. daha `more' may be inserted for emphasis: kurSundan daha aGir, kurSun- dan daha az aGir. It is not essential, however, except in the absence of a second member, e.g. in `this hammer is cheaper, that one is stronger' bu Cek:C daha ucuz, 0tek: daha saGlam, or in such `floating comparatives' as `For Whiter Washing' daha beyaz CamaSir :C:n. The ancient comparative suffix -rek, which appears in a few diminutives (IV, 1 (a)), retains its original force in yeGrek `better, best', from yeG `good'. yeG and yeGrek, also spelled yey, yeyrek, survive only in proverbs. The superlative degree is expressed by en `most'. I+stanbul en bUyUk Sehr:m:zd:r `Istanbul is our greatest city'; bu toprak en az ver:ml:d:r `this soil is least fertile'. 5. Arabic and Persian comparatives. The Persian beter `worse' occurs mostly in proverbs. The Arabic elative, which serves as both comparative and superlative, is familiar to us from the slogan Alla**h akbar `God is most great'. In Turkish it is currently repre- sented by elzem `essential', the Arabic alzam, elative of la**zim `necessary'; enfes `most delightful' (anfas < nefi**s); akdem `prior' (aqdam < qadi**m `ancient'); ender `most rare' (andar < na**dir); ehven `easiest, very cheaply' (ahwan < hayn). Often these words are reinforced in Turkish, as daha beter `worse', en enfes `most delightful'. 6. Intensive adjectives. The only regular' use of prefixation is to intensify the meaning of adjectives and, less commonly, of adverbs. The prefix, which is accented, is modelled on the first syllable of the simple adjective or adverb but with the substitution of m, p, r, or s for the last consonant of that syllable. It is hard to discern any principle governing the choice of consonant, except that p is commoner with back vowels than with front vowels. The following list includes the commonest of such forma- tions; the meaning of the intensive is not given when it is obvious from the meaning of the simple word, as apaCik `wide open, manifest' from aCik `open', or yepyen: `brand new' from yen: `new'. aCik open apaCik baSka other bambaSka totally different bell: evident besbell: beyaz white bembeyaz bok ordure bombok utterly useless boS empty bomboS bUtUn whole bUsbUtUn altogether, entirely Cabuk quick CarCabuk cavlak naked, bald cascavlak dizlak ,, ,, dimdizlak doGru straight dosdoGru dolu full dopdolu g0k blue g0mg0k kara black kapkara kati hard kaskati kirmizi red kipkirmizi kizil ,, kipkizil kuru dry kupkuru kUtUk drunk kUskUtUk mav: blue masmav: mor violet mosmor sari yellow sapsari siki tight simsiki s:yah black s:ms:yah takir (imitates tapping) tamtakir quite empty tamam complete tastamam taze fresh taptaze tem:z clean tertem:z toparlak round tostoparlak uzun long upuzun yassi flat yamyassi yen: new yepyen: yeS:l green yemyeS:l Irregular are: Ciplak `naked', CirilCiplak as well as CirCiplak; saGlam `healthy', sapasaGlam; yalniz `alone', yapayalniz as well as yapyalniz; Cevre `circumference', CepeCevre as well as CepCevre `all around'; gUndUz `(in) daylight', gUpegUndUz `in broad daylight'; dUz `flat', dUmdUz `absolutely flat' and dUpe- dUz `downright, openly'; parCa `piece', paramparCa `broken to bits'. The intensive sirsiklam or sirilsiklam `sopping wet' is current, although the simple siklam `wet' is no longer in use. From eyU, an earlier form of :y: `good', comes epey `rather a lot (of)'. Other such formations are sometimes created in speech without attaining general currency, e.g. gepegenC from genC `young'. IV. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFlXES This chapter deals with the suffixes whereby nouns and adjectives are derived from other nouns and adjectives. 1. Diminutives. The diminutive suffixes are -rek, -cek, -ceG:z, -c:k, and -ce, of which the first two are no longer productive. Before these suffixes, adjectives invariably and nouns usually drop final k. (a) -rek, the ancient comparative suffix (III, 4), survives with diminutive force in acirak `rather bitter' (aci `bitter'), bozrak `light grey' (boz `grey'), kUCUrek `rather small' (kUCUk `small'), ufarak `rather tiny' (ufak `tiny'), alCarak `lowish' (alCak `low'). (b) -cek survives in oyuncak `toy' (oyun `game'); in yavrucak (also yavrucuk), the diminutive of yavru `the young of an animal'; in bUyUcek `biggish' (bUyUk `big') and kUCUcek `very small'. orayacak `all that way' (oraya `thither') is provincial. (c) -ceG:z, an extended form of -cek, is particularly common with nouns denoting living beings and conveys a sense of affection, sometimes mixed with pity: adamcaGiz `the poor wee man', kizcaGiz `the dear little girl', hayvancaGiz `the poor little creature' (hayvan `animal'), k0yceG:z `the dear little village'. (d) -c:k, the most widely used diminutive suffix, throws the accent on to the first syllable: AySec:k `little Ayesha'; Mehmet- C:k `little Mehmet', the affectionate term for the private soldier; evc:k `little house'; alCacik `very low, humble' (alCak). From bebek `baby' and k0pek `dog' come bebec:k and k0pec:k less commonly bebekC:k, k0pekC:k. A few monosyllables vary slightly from the regular pattern: az `little, few' makes azacik and azicik as well as azcik; dar `narrow' makes daracik; b:r `one' makes b:r:c:k `unique'. (e) -ce has a modifying effect on adjectives: gUzelce `quite good' (but not so good as the simple gUzel), seyrekCe `rather infre- quent', uzunca `rather long', genCCe `quite young'. It makes a few nouns from verbal nouns in -me (X,7): from b:lme `guessing', b:lmece `riddle'; from bulma `finding', bulmaca `puzzle', especially `crossword-puzzle'; from kapma `catching', kapmaca `the game of puss-in-the-corner'; from Cekme `drawing', Cek- mece `drawer'. This suffix, which is accented, must not be con- fused with the enclitic -ce which makes adverbs; see XII, 2. It may be followed by -c:k as in gen:SCec:k `pretty wide', yakin- cacik `quite near'. 2. Diminutives of personal names. Apart from those formed with -c:k, these do not seem reducible to a rule; there is no obvious reason why people named Mustafa should be addressed as Mistik. Commonly the first syllable only of the name is retained and to it is added :, o, or a syllable ending in S: ErcUment > Erc:; Ner:man > Ner:; Mehmet > Mem:S or Memo; Met:n > Met:S; Fatma > FatoS (also, affectedly, FatiS or Fati); Hasan > Hasso; Al: and Al:ye > Al:S; Cema=l > Cemo; I+brah:m > I+bo. The forms in -o are accented on the first syllable. They are more familiar and socially less acceptable than those in -S; cf. the difference in English between Bert and Berti e as diminutives of Albert. 3.-(:)ms:, -(:)mtrak, -s:. These three suffixes in some contexts have diminutive effect but basically they mean `resembling', like English -ish in womanish. The initial : of the first two is lost after vowels. (a) -(:)mtrak, the a of which is invariable in the best authors, is used with adjectives of colour and taste; beyazimtrak `whitish'; yeS:l:mtrak `greenish'; ekS:mtrak `sourish' (ekS: `sour'); acimtrak `rather bitter'. This suffix is sometimes spelt with what seems to be an epenthetic vowel--e.g. beyazimtirak--but may be a survival of an older form. (b) -(:)ms: is added to nouns and adjectives: maGara `cave', maGaramsi `cavernous'; duvar `wall', duvarimsi `wall-like'; rapor `report', raporumsu b:r yazi `a report-like writing', `a feeble attempt at a report'. (c) -s: is attached only to nouns and adjectives ending in a con- sonant, so cannot be confused with the post-vocalic form of the third-person possessive suffix: erkek `male', erkeks: `mannish'; Cocuk `child', Cocuksu `childish'. But `foolish', from budala `fool', is budalamsi, while budalasi means `his fool'. 4. -c:. This suffix is added to the singular of nouns and occasionally to adjectives and adverbs to denote persons who are professionally or habitually concerned with, or devoted to, the object, person, or quality denoted by the basic word: :S work :SC: workman sUt milk sUtCU milkman d:S tooth d:SC: dentist orman forest ormanci forester AtatUrk AtatUrkCU Ataturkist halk people halkCi populist or adherent of the People's Party gUrUltU noise gUrUltUcU noisy (of people) m:ll:yet nationality m:ll:yetC: nationalist yol road yolcu traveller :nat obstinacy :natCi obstinate yalan falsehood yalanci liar, deceiver kaCak contraband kaCakCi smuggler Sika=yet complaint S:ka=yetC: complainant Roentgen (discoverer of X-rays) r0ntgenc: radiographer or Peeping Tom, voyeur statUko status quo statUkocu conservative sifir zero sifirci schoolteacher who is lavish with zeros Saka joke Sakaci joker merhum `the late' merhumcu devotee of the late Prime Minister Menderes esk: old esk:c: old-clothes man toptan wholesale toptanci wholesaler beleS (slang) free, gratis beleSC: scrounger, parasite ne what? nec: of what profession? It may be attached to a phrase: hazir `ready', elb:se `clothing', hazir elb:sec: `dealer in ready-made clothing'; evet efend:m `yes, sir', evet efend:mc: `yes-man'. In popular speech it is used redundantly with nouns denoting occupation such as Sof0r `driver', kasap (A) `butcher', garson `waiter': Sof0rcU, kasapCi, garsoncu. Cf. -:c:, XIV, 2 5. -l:. This is added to the singular of nouns to make nouns or adjectives which denote: (a) Possessing the object or quality indicated by the basic word: Seker sugar Sekerl: sweet d:kkat attention, care d:kkatl: attentive, careful at horse atli horseman res:m picture res:ml: illustrated Um:t hope Um:tl: hopeful akil intelligence akilli intelligent bulut cloud bulutlu cloudy gUrUltU noise gUrUltUlU noisy (of things) rahmet divine mercy rahmetl: deceased (b) Possessing the object or quality in a high degree: Cene jaw Cenel: talkative paha price pahali expensive hiz speed hizli rapid sevg: affection sevg:l: beloved yaS age yaSli aged (c) Belonging to a place or institution: k0y village k0ylU villager, peasant Seh:r city Seh:rl: city-dweller I+stanbul I+stanbullu citizen of Istanbul C+:n China C+:nl: Chinese N:cerya Nigeria N:ceryali Nigerian l:se lyce=*e l:sel: lyce=*e student osman (founder of the Osmanli Ottoman (member Ottoman or subject of the dynasty) dynasty) Added to the name of a colour, it makes an adjective or noun meaning dressed in that colour: s:yah black s:yahli dressed in black kirmizi red kirmizili dressed in red It may be added to a phrase: uzun boy long stature uzun boylu tall gen:S omuz broad shoulder gen:S omuzlu broad-shouldered orta yaS middle age orta yaSli middle-aged kirmizi yanak red cheek kirmizi yanakli red-cheeked b:r mart tar:h-: the date b:r mart tar:hl: dated 1 March 1 March Camur mud Camurlu muddy Camurlu yUz muddy face Camurlu yUzlU muddy-faced kullaniS use (X, 11) kullaniSli serviceable yaygin kullaniS wide use yaygin kullaniSli widely used The suffix appears to be used redundantly in bombel: `convex' < French bombe `convex'. In Sanjanli `shot' (of silk; other forms being janjanli and cancanli) it is not redundant, as the French changeant is used as a noun in Turkish in the sense of the quality possessed by shot silk: Sanjan kumaSlar-i `shot fabrics', 6. ... -l: ... -l:. Pairs of words of opposite meanings, each with a suffixed -l:, are used adverbially and adjectivally: gece-l: gUndUz-lU CaliSmak `to work night and day'; kiz-li erkek-l: 0Grenc: gruplari `groups of pupils including both girls and boys'. The basic words may be adjectives: uzak-li yakin-li kahkahalar `bursts of laughter both far and near'. The -l: in this use is historically distinct from that discussed in the preceding section. 7. -s:z. This suffix means `without': Um:ts:z `hopeless', sonsuz `endless', Sapkasiz `hatless', gUrUltUsUz `noiseless', d:kkats:z `careless', tar:hs:z `undated'. It may be added to pronouns as well as nouns: onsuz `without him', sens:z `without you'. See also XI, 12. 8. -l:k. (a) Added to nouns or adjectives, it makes abstract nouns: gUzel beautiful gUzell:k beauty kolay easy kolaylik ease, facility :y: good :y:l:k goodness, good action asker soldier askerl:k military service Cocuk child Cocukluk childhood, childish action, childishness :k: two :k:l:k duality :S-C: workman :SC:l:k workmanship kaCak-Ci smuggler kaCakCilik smuggling AtatUrk-CU Ataturkist AtatUrkCUlUk Ataturkism d:kkat-l: careful d:kkatl:l:k carefulness d:kkat-s:z careless d:kkats:zl:k carelessness Vulgarly it is added to Arabic abstract nouns: :nsan:yet `humanity' > :nsan:yetl:k ; cf. Sof0rcU, etc., #4, end. When -l:k is added to nouns of rank the resulting word is not invariably abstract but exhibits the same ambiguity as `the Presi- dent's office' (the office he holds or the office in which he works): kaymakamlik may be the rank of lieutenant-governor or his official residence or the district he administers; kirallik may be kingship or kingdom or reign. (b) Added to nouns it makes nouns and adjectives meaning `intended for or suitable for ...': 0n front 0nlUk pinafore tuz sal tuzluk salt-cellar k:ra hire k:ralik for hire, to let g0z eye g0zlUk eye-glasses, spectacles CamaSir linen CamaSirlik laundry baba father babalik adoptive father, paternity Seh:t martyr Seh:tl:k military cemetery, martyrdom hastane hospital hastanel:k hospital-case mahkeme law-court mahkemel:k (person) brought gel:n bride gel:nl:k marriageable girl, nubile, bridal, wedding-dress, the state of being a bride (c) Added to numerical expressions it makes nouns and adjectives: seksen eighty seksenl:k octogenarian on ten onluk tenner; coin or note of ten piastres or pounds yUz hundred yUz l:ralik hundred-lira note yil year yillik yearling b:r saat one hour- b:r saatl:k b:r yer a place one hour's journey away on :k: twelve cars on:k: a twelve- araba arabalik b:r car convoy konvoy The numerical expression may be a noun in the locative case: yUz-de in a hundred yUzdel:k percentage on-da in ten ondalik tithe, ten per cent. com- mission Cf. gUnde in the day gUndel:k daily wage (d) Added to adverbs of time: S:md: now S:md:l:k for the present bugUn today bugUnlUk for today Although these may be translated as adverbs, as in bugUnlUk bu kadar yeter `that's enough for today', they really belong in (c) above; bugUnlUk means `the today-amount'. 9. -daS. This suffix is not affected by vowel harmony but it does appear as -taS after unvoiced consonants. Added only to nouns, it denotes common attachment to the concept expressed by the basic noun, like English prefixed or sufxed `fellow'. vatan home-land vatandaS compatriot, fellow citizen okul school okuldaS schoolmate meslek profession meslektaS colleague d:n religion d:ndaS co-religionist CaG time, epoch CaGdaS contemporary (adj.or noun) Two exceptions: kardeS not -daS is the standard Turkish for `brother' or `sister' (< karin-daS `womb-fellow'), and `name- sake' is adaS with a single d although `name' is ad. The possible explanation for the latter anomaly is that its second element is not -daS but eS `mate' and this word adaS is the most likely etymon of the suffix -daS. The language reformers have chosen to make this suffix con- form to vowel harmony in the neologism :S-teS-l:k `co-operation' (:S `work') and in the resurrected g0nUl-deS `sympathizer' (originally g0nUldaS from g0nUl `soul'), apparently through a misunderstanding of the phonetic spelling used by Redhouse. 10. -g:l. This invariable suffix is a provincialism. Added to titles or personal names it denotes `the house or family of ...': Kay- makamg:l, Mehmetg:l, also in the plural Kaymakamg:ller, Mehmetg:ller. It may be suffixed, after a personal suffix, to nouns denoting relatives: teyzemg:l `my aunt's family', the standard Turkish for this being teyzemler (II, 15, end). It has been used by the reformers to coin names of plant and animal families: gUl `rose', gUlg:ller `Rosaceae'; ked: `cat', ked:g:ller `Felidae'. 11. -(s)el. Arabic words ending in the adjectival suffix -i** have greatly enriched the Turkish vocabulary; witness such words as tar:hi= `historical', d:ni= `religious'. Arabic nouns ending in -at- drop it before adding the -i**, hence s:yas: `political' (s:yaset `politics'), :rad: `voluntary' (:rade `will'), m:ll: `national' (m:llet `nation'). The language reformers, in their desire to purge Turkish of foreign elements, advocated the replacement of this useful suffix by -sel or, when added to words ending in s or z, -el. This they employed with foreign borrowings and with Turkish words, both existing and manufactured: tar:h (A) history tar:hsel historic s:yaset (A) politics s:yasal political ceb:r (A) algebra ceb:rsel algebraic k:mya (A) chemistry k:myasal chemical f:z:k physics f:z:ksel physical 0z self 0zel private b:l:m science b:l:msel scientific anayasa constitution anayasal constitutional In this last example the suffix has been reduced to -l to avoid the cacophonous -sasal. To justify this innovation the reformers cited such time- honoured words as uysal `compliant' (uymak `to conform'), kumsal `sandy' or `a sandy tract' (kum `sand') and yoksul `destitute' (yok `non-existent'). The real inspiration of it, how- ever, was in such French words as culturel and social. 12. -vari=. This Persian suffix, meaning `-like', is still productive in Turkish to a limited extent: S+eksp:rvari= `Shakespearian'; C+0rc:lvari= `Churchillian'; James Bondvari= b:r casusluk `a James Bond-ish case of espionage'. 13. -c:l. This occurs in a few words and has the sense of `tending towards, accustomed to, addicted to': ak white akCil faded kir grey kircil grizzled adam man adamcil tame or ready to attack man baIik fish balikCil heron tavSan hare tavSancil eagle 0lUm death 0lUmcUl moribund Some neologisms have been made with this suffix: ben I benc:l selfish ana mother anacil mother-bound ev house evc:l domesticated k:tap book k:tapCil bookish 14. -hane. The Persian kha**ne `house' is not quite dead as a suffix in Turkish; pastahane `cake-shop' is of more recent origin than hastahane, eczahane, and postahane and unlike them it keeps its h more often than not (I, 11). It is added to a few Turkish words, e.g.: sUthane `dairy', buzhane `ice-house', d:k:mhane `tailoring workshop', aShane `cook-house'. A modern slang formation is kazikhane `clip joint' from kazik `swindle'. 15. -ane. This Persian suffix, in which the a is long, serves (a) to make adjectives or nouns into adverbs: mest `drunk', mestane `drunkenly'; (b) to turn nouns and adjectives indicating persons into adjectives describing things: Sah `king', Sahane `regal'; Sa:r `poet', Sa:rane `poetic'; dost `friend', dostane `friendly' (as in `a friendly word'); mUdebb:r b:r paSa `a prudent Pasha', paSanin mUdebb:rane hareket: `the Pasha's prudent action', It is mentioned here because it has recently shown itself productive of at least one word: from b:lg:C `know-all', bilg:Cane `in a know-all fashion'. V. PRONOUNS 1 . Personal pronouns: Singular First Second Third abs. ben sen o acc. ben: sen: onu gen. ben:m sen:n onun dat. bana sana ona loc. bende sende onda abl. benden senden ondan Plural abs. b:z s:z onlar acc. b:z: s:z: onlari gen. b:z:m s:z:n onlarin dat. b:ze s:ze onlara loc. b:zde s:zde onlarda abl. b:zden s:zden onlardan In pre-nineteenth-centuy texts the usual forms of the third person are: (sing.) ol, ani, anin, ana, anda, andan ; (pl-) anlar, anlari, etc. It will be noticed that the table exhibits some anomalies: the m in the genitive of the first-person singular and plural; the change from e to a in the dative of the first- and second-person singular; in the third person the n before the case-suffixes of the singular and before the -lar of the plural. The most plausible explanations of these anomalies are: the original ben:M and b:z:M became ben:m and b:z:m under the influence of the pronominal suffixes -:m and -:m:z, helped perhaps by the labial b. The original suffix of the dative was not -e but -ge; benge, senge became beMe, seMe and the influence of this nasal brought about the change to bana, sana, a change possibly helped by analogy with the old third-person dative aMa > ana; this very form aMa may have been due to the influence of the M in an earlier *oMa. The n appears in the third person also when o takes the suffixes -s:z (IV, 7) and -ce (XII, 2): onsuz `without him', onca `according to him'. The usual explanation of this n is that it is the `pro- nominal n' which appears after the third-person suffix and in the declension of -k: and kend: (##3, 4). o is a demonstrative as well as a personal pronoun; see #5. s:z is the regular polite form for `you', singular or plural, and b:z is used colloquially for `I' (XVI, 3 (c)); they may therefore take the plural suffix in the colloquial--b:zler,s:zler--when referring to more than one person. In courtly speech, which is steadily becoming rarer, ben may be replaced by benden:z `your slave' (< Persian banda; the resemblance to ben is coincidental), the full meaning of which has become somewhat abraded, so that a following verb nowadays is usually in the first and not the third person, and, for example, `my humble opinion' is benden:z:n f:kr:m `your slave's my opinion'. Similarly, s:z may be replaced by zat-i al:n:z or zat- al:ler: (Persian izafet), literally `your high person, their high person', which are followed by a verb in the second-person plural. 2. Uses of the personal pronouns. As they are definite by nature, we may call ben, sen, o, etc., the nominative instead of the absolute case; there is no question of their being used as an indefinite accusative. The persons of verbs are shown by suffixes but a pronoun in the nominative may be used for emphasis: o g:tt:, ben g:tmed:m `he went; I did not go'. The pronoun object of a verb is generally omitted if it can be understood from the context: k:tabi dUn aldim, daha okuma- dim `I bought the book yesterday; I have not read yet'. The use of sen: `thee' with terms of abuse is conventionally explained by the ellipsis of a verb such as `I dislike/deplore/warn': sen: g:d: ! `you scoundrel!'; sen: afacan sen: ! `you cheeky little urchin you !' More precisely, the reason there is no verb is that the speaker does not have in mind any specific verb but only an inarticulate emotion of displeasure of which sen: is the object. In the genitive the pronouns can be used predicatively; cf. II, 11: bu memleket n:C:n b:z:m? `why is this land ours?'; bu para ben:m `this money is mine'; sen:n olsun `keep it' (lit. let-it-be of-you'); mesul:yet s:z:n deG:l `the responsibility is not yours'. They may reinforce the personal suffixes: ev-:m:z or b:z:m ev-:m:z `our house'; sokaG-iniz or s:z:n sokaG-iniz `your street'; ad-i or onun ad-i `his name'. The genitive of the third-person pronouns can resolve ambi- guities which might arise from the various possible senses of, for example, Cocuklari (cf. II, 15): onun Cocuklari his children onlarin CocuGu their child onlarin Cocuklari their children Pronouns of the first and second persons in the genitive are also used informally as attributive adjectives, i.e. replacing the personal suffixes: `our house' can be b:z:m ev; `your street' s:z:n sokak. The genitive of the third-person pronouns cannot, however, replace the personal suffixes in standard Turkish: onun ad instead of adi or onun adi is a provincialism (cf. Ahmed':n Mustafa, p. 43, penultimate paragraph). 3. -k:. The pronominal or `mixed' suffix -k: is exceptional in the matter of vowel harmony, not changing except after gUn `day' and dUn `yesterday', when it becomes -kU. Added to the genitive case of a noun or pronoun, it makes a possessive pronoun: h:z- metC:-n:n-k: `the one belonging to the servant'- CocuG-un-k: -the one belonging to the child'; ben:mk: `mine'; sen:nk: `thine'; onunk: `his, hers, the one belonging to it'; b:z:mk: `ours'. s:z:nk: `yours'; onlarink: `theirs'. bu kalem ben:m deG:l and bu kalem ben:mk: deG:l may both be translated `this pen is not mine'. The former is a simple denial of ownership, the latter implies `I have a pen but this is not it'. The noun in the genitive to which -k: is suffixed may be in the plural and may have a personal suffix. arkadaS-iniz-in-k: the one belonging to your friend arkadaS-lar-iniz-in-k: the one belonging to your friends Added to an expression of time or place, which may be an adverb or a noun in the locative case, -k: makes a pronoun or adjective: yazin `in summer', k0ylUnUn yazink: kazanci `the peasant's summer earnings'; bugUn `today', bugUnkU gazete `today's newspaper', bugUnkUler `those who are today, people nowadays'; yarin `tomorrow', yarink: toplanti `tomorrow's meeting'; S:md: `now', S:md:k: durum `the present situation'; okul CaG-i `school-age', okul CaGindak: Cocuklar `children of school-age' (`who are in school-age'). I+zm:r'dek: bUromuz kUCUk, Adana'dak: daha bUyUktUr `our office which-is-in- Izmir is small, the-one-in-Adana is bigger'. Pronouns in -k: may be declined. In the singular the case- endings are preceded by the pronominal n, but this does not ap- pear in the plural. Thus the declension of ben:mk: is as follows: Singular Plural abs. ben:mk: ben:mk:ler mine acc. ben:mkin: ben:mk:ler: mine gen. ben:mk:n:n ben:mk:ler:n of mine dat. ben:mk:ne ben:mk:lere to mine loc. ben:mk:nde ben:mk:lerde in mine abl. ben:mk:nden ben:mk:lerden from mine CocuGun boyu babasinink:n: geCt: `the child's stature has passed his father's'; res:mler:m:z kardeSler:n:z:nk:lerden kiymetl:d:r `our pictures are more valuable than your brothers' '. 4. kend:. As an adjective it means `own': kend: oda-m `my own room', kend: kiz-i `her own daughter', kend: memleket-:n:z `your own country'. With the personal suffixes it makes the emphatic or reflexive pronouns `myself', etc.: kend:-m , kend:-n, kend: or kend:-s:, kend:-m:z, kend:-n:z, kend:-ler:. For `himself' with reflexive meaning, kend: is far more usual than kend:s:; indeed, purists maintain that kend:s: should never be used reflexively. Both forms take the pronominal n before all case-endings: abs. kend: kend:s: acc. kend:n: kend:s:n: gen. kend:n:n kend:s:n:n dat. kend:ne kend:s:ne loc. kend:nde kend:s:nde abl. kend:nden kend:s:nden As a reflexive pronoun kend: is usually repeated, the first time in the absolute with no suffix, the second time with the appropriate personal and case suffix: kend: kend:-m-: mUdafaa ett:m `I defended myself'; :S: kend: kend:-m-e yapamadim `I could not do the job for (or ``by'') myself'; kend: kend:-n-: tenk:t ed:yor `he is criticizing himself'; kend: kend:-m:z-den korkmiyalim `let us not be afraid of ourselves'. kend:s: and its plural kend:ler: are commonly employed as simple third-person pronouns with no reflexive or emphatic sense: kend:s: evde `he is at home'; kend:ler:n: g0rdUnUz mU `have you seen them?' As kend:-s: literally means `his self', it may stand in izafet with a preceding noun in the genitive: AtatUrk'Un kend:s: `AtatUrk himself'; Mecl:s':n kend:s: `the Assembly itself'. 5. Demonstratives: bu this (close to the speaker) Su this or that (a little further away) o that (also `he, she, it') When used as adjectives these words are invariable. For their declension when used as pronouns see o in #1: sing. bu, bunu, etc., Su, Sunu, etc.; pl. bunlar, etc., Sunlar, etc. Su means `the following': Su tekl:f `the following proposal, this proposal which I am about to mention'; bu tekl:f `the pro- posal which has just been mentioned'. Where we say `this or that', Turkish prefers `that or this'.. Sunu yap, bunu yap `do that, do this'. In archaizing legal language, :Sbu may be found for the adjectival bu. Until the last century Sol was sometimes used for Su. The personal suffixes are not used with the demonstratives except in such stereotyped expressions as Su-nun bu-nun Su-su bu-su :le ala=kadar olmiyan `not interested in other people's business' (`the that and this of that one and this one'); o-nun Su-su bu-su `his private concerns' (`his that and this')- Demonstratives precede attributive adjectives: bu uzun yol `this long road'; Su gen:S omuzlu gUreSC: `that broad-shouldered wrestler'; o meShur akt0r `that famous actor'. They may come within a definite izafet; cf. II, 17, end. An idiomatic use of bu is to place it after a noun: sanatka=r bu, literally `artist this', meaning `the fellow's an artist; what do you expect?' So: hayat bu `that's life for you'; Cocuk bu `he's only a child; don't ask too much of him-. From bu, Su, and o are formed b0yle, S0yle, and 0yle, used both as adverbs, `thus', and adjectives, `such, this/that kind of': b0yle adamlar such men (as this) S0yle evler such houses (as those over there) oyle f:k:rler such ideas (as those) The addition of the third-person suffix to these words makes them into pronouns (cf. II, 22): b0yles: `this sort of person', S0yles: or 0yles: `that sort of person'; plural: b0yleler:, S0y- leler:, 0yleler:. The singular forms are also used adjectivally-- b0yles: adamlar `such men'--but this use has not achieved general currency. ber:k:, 0tek: mean respectively the nearer and the further of two. They may be adjectives or pronouns; being compounded with -k:, when used as pronouns they take the pronominal n before all cases of the singular: bu gazetey: :stem:yorum, 0tek:-n-: ver `I don't want this newspaper, give me the other one over there'. 0tek: ber:k: means `this one and that one, any- body and everybody'. 6. Interrogatives: k:m who? hang: which? ne what? kaC how many? k:m declines like a noun, in singular and plural: bu Canta k:m-:n? `whose is this bag?'; k:m-: g0rdUn? `whom did you see?'; k:mler-e? `to what people?' ne exhibits certain irregularities: Singular Plural abs. ne neler acc. ne or ney: neler or neler: gen. ney:n or nen:n neler:n dat. neye or n:ye nelere loc. nede nelerde abl. neden nelerden There are also alternative forms with the personal suffixes, meaning `what of mine?', `what of yours?', etc.: Singular Plural 1 nem or ney:m nem:z or ney:m:z 2 nen ney:n nen:z ney:n:z 3 nes: ney: neler: The usual accusative singular is ne : ne yaptin? `what have you done?' ney: is used: (a) For `what specific thing?'; e.g. if you hear that someone is going to the opera and ask ne g0receks:n? `what are you going to see?', you may elicit the facetious reply `an opera, of course !' There is no danger of this if you ask ney: g0receks:n? `what are you going to see?' The defined accusative plural neler: is similarly used for `what specific things?' (b) When another interrogative follows, especially one com- pounded with ne: ney: ve ne zaman yaptin? `what have you done, and when?'; k:m ney: k:me satiyor `who is selling what, to whom?' The regular spelling of the dative singular is neye: neye yarar? `for-what is it suitable?', while n:ye is generally used in the sense of `what for, why?', as is the ablative neden. The plural is used in exclamations: neler g0rdUm! `what things I saw!' One of the commonest uses of ne with personal suffixes is exemplified in nen var? `what's the matter with you?',lit. `what- of-yours exists, what do you have?', cf. qu'as-tu? Note also neme la=zim? `what has it to do with me?', lit. `to-what-of-mine is it necessary?' bu okul-un ne-s:-s:n? `you are this school's what?', i.e. `what is your position in this school?'--kapici-si-yim `I am its janitor'. ne may be the qualifying element of an indefinite izafet e.g. ne ders-: var? `what lesson is there?' (on the time-table)-- logically, because the answer will also consist in an indefinite izafet: geometr: ders-:. There is a story of a man who tries to tell a friend that he has seen a ghost, hortlak, but in his terror he can only stammer ho-ho-ho. His friend asks ne ho'su? `what ho?, the ho belonging to what?' ne may be an adjective as well as a pronoun: ne hacet? `what need?', ne :nat! `what obstinacy!', ne gUzel C:Cekler! `what lovely flowers!' It may also render `how' as in ne gUzel! `how beautiful!' .???, al*m? `how do you know?' (lit. `how is it known?'); or `why' as in ne kariSiyorsun? `what are you inter- fering ?' It forms part of many compound interrogatives: ne zaman, ne vak:t `when?'; ne kadar `how much?'; n:C:n (< ne :C:n ` what for?') `why?'; nasil (< ne asil `what basis?') `how?', `what sort of ...?'; nec: `of what profession?' With the adverbial suffix -ce (XII, 2), it makes (a) nece `in what language?' and (b) n:ce, meaning originally `how many?', then `how many!' and nowadays mostly `many'. The elision of the e of ne, as seen in n:C:n and nasil, is frequent in rapid conversation: ne olacak? `what will happen?' > nolacak? or n'olacak?; ne yapalim? `what are we to do?' > napalim? hang: and kaC are adjectives, the latter always construed with a singular noun: hang: v:la=yet? `which province?'; hang: v:la=yetler? `which provinces?'; kaC v:la=yet? `how many pro- vinces?' With the addition of personal suffixes they become pronouns: hang:-m:z? `which of us?'; kaC-iniz? `how many of you?'; hang:-s:? `which one of them?'; hang:-ler-:? `which (pl.) of them?' 7. Indefinite, determinative, and negative. Most of the pronouns in this category are formed from adjectives by the addition of the third-person suffix, on the pattern of b0yle-s: (#5). Thus b:r `a, one' is an adjective: b:r adam g:tt: `one man went'; b:r-: is a pronoun: adamlardan b:r: g:tt:, b:r: kaldi `one of the men went, one remained'. The suffix may be doubled: b:r-:-s:. b:r: and b:r:s: may also mean `someone'; in this use the ante- cedent of the third-person suffix is people at large, a `they' as vague as in `they say': b:r: or b:r:s: bana seslend: `someone called out to me'. In those words below in which b:r is the first element it carries the word-accent. 8. bazi, k:m: `some' (adjective). The final vowel of bazi is the mark of the Persian izafet, so is unaccented. k:m: in this adjectival sense is a neologism. Both qualify singular or plural nouns: bazi or k:m: adam `some man'; bazi or k:m: adamlar `some men'. Pronouns: bazisi, bazilari, k:m:, k:m:s: `some people'; bazimiz, k:m:m:z `some of us'; baziniz, k:m:n:z `some of you'. 9. b:rtakim `a number of' (lit. `a set') always qualifies plural nouns: b:rtakim k0ylUler `a number of villagers'. Like the indefinite article, it may come between adjective and noun: kUCUk b:rtakim devletler `a number of small states'. Note the distinction between b:rtakim k:taplar `a number of books' and b:r takim k:tap `a set of books' (for the construction of the latter see XVI, 7). Pronoun: b:rtakimi `a number of them'. 10. her (P) `each, every', with noun in singular: her gUn `every day'; her :k:-s: `both of them'; her UC-UmUz `all three of us'; her b:r:, herkes (P) `everyone'; her b:r-:m:z `each one of us'; her k:m `whoever'; her ne `whatever'; her ne kadar `however much'; her hang: `whichever'; her hang: b:r `any'. Compounds of her are sometimes written as one word: herb:r:m:z, herne- kadar, etc. 11. hep is an adverb meaning `altogether, entirely, always'. With the personal suffixes it becomes a pronoun: hep-:m:z `all of us', hep-:n:z `all of you'. The third person is heps: (< hep-:-s:, with the suffix doubled) `all of it, all of them, everyone'. 12. Cok as an adverb means `much, very': Cok konuStuk `we talked a lot'; Cok faydali `very useful'. With a noun, singular or plural, it means `much, many': Cok :S `much work'; Cok k:S: `many persons', Cok yerler `many places'. With possessive suffixes it is a pronoun, meaning `most' rather than `more': CoG-umuz `most of us'; CoG-unuz `most of you'; CoG-u `most of it, most of them'. The last is used as an adjective as well as a pronoun, like b0yles: and k:m: : CoGu :nsanlar `most people'; CoGu zaman `most times, most often'. b:rCok `a good deal of' is followed by a noun in singular or plural; pedants say singular only. Pronouns: b:rCoGu `a good deal of it, a good many of them'; b:rCoklari `a good many people or things'. 13. az as an adverb means `little: az :Cer `he drinks little'. As an adjective, with a singular noun, `few, little': az k:S: `few persons'; az Sarap :Cer `he drinks little wine'. See also III, 4. b:raz `a little': b:raz yUrUdUk `we walked a little'; b:raz ekmek yed:m `I ate a little bread'; b:raz-i `a little of it'. 14. b:rkaC `a few, several', with singular noun: b:rkaC gUn kaldi `he stayed several days'. Pronoun: b:rkaCi `several of them', etc. 15. bUtUn as a noun or as an adjective qualifying a singular noun means `whole': m:llet-:n bUtUn-U `the whole of the nation'; bUtUn m:llet `the whole nation'. As an adjective with a plural noun it means `all': bUtUn m:lletler `all the nations'. 16. baSka, d:Ger (P) `other'. Pronouns: baSkasi, b:r baSkasi, baSka b:r:, d:Ger b:r: `another of them, someone or something else': kaldir bunu, baSkasini get:r `take this away, bring another'. benden baSka `other than me'; benden baSkasi `someone other than me'. 17. 0bUr (< o b:r; I, 31, end) `the other, the next': 0bUr gUn `the day after tomorrow'; 0bUr dUnya `the next world'. Pronoun: 0bUrU `the other one'. 18. b:rb:r or b:r:b:r, with the appropriate possessive suffix, means `each other': 1 b:rb:r:m:z or b:r:b:r:m:z 2 b:rb:r:n:z or b:r:b:r:n:z 3 b:rb:r:, b:r:b:r:, or b:r:b:rler: b:rb:r:m:z-e yardim ed:yoruz `we are helping each other'; b:r:b:r:n:z-: sev:n:z `love one another'; b:r:b:r:nden gUzel kizlar `girls each more beautiful than the other'. The Persian yekd:Ger is an increasingly rarer alternative. 19. ayni `same'. In view of its origin (II, 26, third paragraph) this ought to be immediately followed by a noun, as in ayni zaman `the same time'. It is, however, regularly used nowadays with an intervening adjective and even predicatively: ayni uzun yol `the same long road'; hedefler:m:z ayni `our aims are the same'. This ayni, which is frequently misspelt ayn:, is accented on the first syllable. There is another word ayni, accented on the last syllable, in which the i is the Turkish third-person suffix: ad-i ben:m-k:- n:n ayn-i-dir `his name is the same as mine', lit. `his-name of-mine is-its-counterpart'. The suffix is sometimes doubled. bunun ayn-i-si-ni alalim `let's buy one just like this' (`of-this its-counterpart'). This, however, is a vulgarism, against which schoolchildren are warned. Oddly, what they are told to put in its place is tipkisi `its replica', which also contains a doubled third-person suffix. The bare form *tipik (Arabic &ibq) is never used, though tipki (the final i being that of the Persian izafet) is commonly put before a noun or pronoun to reinforce the post- position g:b: `like': tipki babasi g:b: `just like his father'; tipki onlar g:b: `just like them'. 20. Sey, as well as meaning `thing', is an all-purpose pronoun, used like French chose to take the place of a word or name the speaker cannot for the moment recall. For its syntactic function see XV, 3. When it takes the third-person suffix this is usually doubled, Sey-:-s: (sometimes spelled Seys:; cf. heps:, #11), probably because in ordinary speech Sey-: is barely distinguishable from Sey : Sey-:n Sey-:-s: ne oldu--mektub-un zarf-i? `what has become of the what-d'ye-call-it of the what-d'ye-call-it--the envelope of the letter?' 21. falan, falanca, f:la=n, f:la=nca `so and so, such and such' are adjectives and pronouns. falan tar:hte, falanca geld: `on such and such a date, so and so came'. falan and f:la=n also mean `and so on' after nouns, `or there- abouts' after expressions of time or quantity: cam:ler-: falan gezd: `he toured the mosques and so on'; temmuzda f:la=n [MISSING LINE?] :st:yor `he wants ten liras or so'. They may be used together: Bedr:, Orhan, Ha=m:t falan f:la=n gel:yorlar `Bedri, Orhan, Hamit and so on and so forth are coming'. falan festek:z and falan feSmeka=n are similarly used and convey even less en- thusiasm at the prospect. 22. :nsan `human being' is used for the indefinite `one': bu sicaklikta :nsan Cabuk yorulur `in this heat one gets tired quickly'. See also the use of the impersonal passive in VIII, 54. 23. h:C, in origin the Persian for `nothing', has the same sense in Turkish: ne yaptin?--h:C `what have you done?'--`nothing'. It also functions as an adverb reinforcing negatives: h:C konuSmaz `he doesn't talk at all'. With b:r it is written as one word: h:Cb:r haber yok `there is no news at all'. In positive questions it translates `ever', in negative questions `never'; h:C 0yle Sey olur mu? `does such a thing ever happen?'; h:C Antalya'da bulunmadiniz mi? `have you never been in Antalya?' 24. k:mse, originally `whoever it is' (k:m-:se, XX, 7), now means `person, somebody not clearly specified': b:r k:mse s:z: ariyordu `someone was looking for you'. In conjunction with a negative it means `no one', like French personne: k:mse aldiriS etm:yor `no one is paying attention'; k:mse-s:z Cocuklar `children who are alone in the world' (IV, 7). Its diminutive is used in the negative sense only: k:msec:k yok `there's no one at all'; k:msec:kler kalmamiS `there are no people left at all'. VI. NUMERALS 1. Cardinals: b:r 1 on:k: 12 kirk 40 :k: 2 onUC 13 ell: 50 UC 3 on d0rt 14 altmiS 60 d0rt 4 on beS 15 yetm:S 70 beS 5 on alti 16 seksen 80 alti 6 on yed: 17 doksan 90 yed: 7 on sek:z 18 yUz 100 sek:z 8 on dokuz 19 b:n 1,000 dokuz 9 y:rm: 20 b:r m:lyon 1,000,000 on 10 y:rm: b:r 21 b:r m:lyar 1,000,000,000 on b:r 11 otuz 30 sifir zero Numbers are compounded by simple juxtaposition: yUz b:r `a hundred and one'; UC m:lyon d0rt yUz y:rm: b:n sek:z yUz doksan alti `three million four hundred and twenty thousand eight hundred and ninety-six'. In the numbers from 11 to 19 inclusive (which may be found written as one word), the accent is on the on. In higher numbers the last syllable of the unit is accented. Whereas `one hundred' and `one thousand' are yUz and b:n respectively, `one million' and `one milliard' (i.e. an American billion) require b:r. In writing figures, a full stop (nokta) is used to separate the thousands; thus beS b:n alti yUz otuz :k: is written 5.632. On the other hand, a comma (v:rgUl) is used where English uses a decimal point, so 7.5 (`seven point five') appears as 7,5 (yed: v:rgUl beS). Less commonly, the thousands are separated by a comma, and a full stop may be used for the decimal point: 5,632; 7.5. In vague assessments of number such as `two or three', `five or six', the `or' is not expressed: :k: UC, beS alti. For `three or four', idiom mysteriously prefers UC beS to UC d0rt. Cf. the expressions UC aSaGi beS yukari `a little more or less', literally `three down five up', and UCe beSe bakmamak `not to haggle about the price', literally `not to look at three five'.` Care must be taken not to confuse on beS `fifteen' with beS on `five or ten'. Care is also necessary with yUz, which besides `hundred' may mean `cause' or `face': :k: yUz `two hundred'; :k: yUzlU `two- faced'; :k:yUzlUlUk `hypocrisy'; yUz 0lCUmU `surface-area'; bu yUzden `for this reason'. kirk is used for an indefinitely high number: kirkayak `centi- pede' (`forty-feet'); kirk yilda b:r `once in a blue moon' ('in forty years'). When case-endings or other suffixes are written after figures, the rules of consonant-assimilation and vowel-harmony must be observed: `from 2 to 9', :k:den dokuza, 2 den 9 a; `from 3 to 7', UCten yed:ye, 3 ten 7 ye; `from 6 to 11', altidan on b:re, 6 dan 11 e. An apostrophe may precede the suffix: 2'den 9'a, etc. For the use of the singular form of the noun after numerals, see 11,2. 2. Classifiers. A numeral is rarely used alone, e.g. in answer to a question; either the noun is repeated or, if the things enumerated are separate entities and not units of measurement, the word tane (`seed, grain') is added after the numeral. kaC saat bekl:yor- sunuz?--:k: saat `how many hours have you been waiting?'-- `two hours'. kaC k:tap aldiniz?--d0rt tane `how many books have you bought?'--`four'. tane is often inserted between numeral and noun (unless the latter is a unit of measurement): beS tane anahtar `five keys'; sek:z tane mend:l `eight handker- chiefs'. It is also added after kaC, especially without a following noun: kaC tane :st:yorsunuz? `how many do you want?' If people are being enumerated, k:S: `person' is similarly used: kaC k:S: gel:yor kokteyl:n:ze?--kirk alti k:S: `how many are coming to your cocktail-party?'--`forty-six'. When enumerating cattle, or vegetables such as onions and cabbage, baS `head' is interposed after the numeral: ell: baS siGir `fifty oxen'; yUz baS koyun `a hundred sheep'; :k: baS la=hana `two cabbages'. Cf. the English `fifty head of cattle', but note that Turkish uses simple apposition, with no `of'. el `hand' is similarly used when enumerating shots of a firearm or deals of cards: b:r el tabanca atti `he fired one pistol-shot'; b:r el poker oyniyalim `let's play a hand of poker'. Other such classifiers were used in Ottoman: aded `number' as alternative to tane; kita `piece', of books, documents, ships, and fields; pare `piece', of artillery, ships, and villages. 3. Fractions. The denominator, in the locative case, precedes the numerator: UCte b:r (lit. `in-three one') `one-third'; yed:de d0rt `four-sevenths'- yUzde yi:rm: beS `twenty-five per cent.'; yUzde yUz `one hundred per cent.' The percentage sign consequently precedes the number-- %25; %100. The numerator is put in definite izafet with the whole, of which the fraction is part: Cocuklarin beSte UCU `three-fifths of the children' (`of-the- children, in-five their-three'); gel:r-:m-:n yUzde y:rm: beS: `twenty-five per cent. of my income'. This last example would ap- pear in figures as gel:r:m:n %25 :. yeku=n yUz 0lCUm-U-nUn % 18,7 s: (yUzde on sek:z v:rgUl yed:s:) ormanlarla kapli- dir `of its total surface-area, 18.7 % is covered with forests'. buCuk means `and a half' and is used only after whole numbers and, jocularly, after az `little' and yari `half': :k: buCuk l:ra `two and a half liras'; on yed: buCuk k:lometre `seventeen and a half kilometres'; az buCuk k:S: `a handful of people'; yari buCuk ustalik `inadequate craftsmanship'. yarim is an adjective meaning `a half-': yarim saat `a half-hour'; yarim k:lo domates `half a kilo of tomatoes' (note the apposition). yari is used: (a) As a noun: talebeler-:n yari-si kiz `half of the pupils are girls'; gece-n:n yari-si-ni konuSarak geC:rd:k `we spent half of the night in talking'; gece yari-si `midnight'; gece-n:n yari-si-n-da `in the middle of the night'. (b) As an adjective meaning `mid-, at the half-way mark': yari gece `midnight'; yari yol-da birakmak `to leave in the lurch' (lit. `at mid-way'). (c) As an adverb: yari anlamak `to half-understand'; yari TUrkCe, yari Fransizca konuStuk `we spoke half Turkish, half French'. Ceyrek (P) `quarter' is now little used except when telling the time; see XII, 14. 4. Ordinals. The suffix is -:nc: after consonants, -nc: after vowels: b:r:nc: or :lk 1st y:rm:nc: 20th :k:nc: 2nd y:rm: b:r:nc: 21st UCUncU 3rd otuzuncu 30th d0rdUncU 4th kirkinci 40th beS:nc: 5th ell:nc: 50th altinci 6th altmiSinci 60th yed:nc: 7th yetm:S:nc: 70th sek:z:nc: 8th seksen:nc: 80th dokuzuncu 9th doksaninci 90th onuncu 10th yUzUncU 100th on b:r:nc: 11th b:n:nc: 1,000th m:lyonuncu millionth m:lyarinci thousand-millionth As will be seen from `11th' and `21st', the ordinal suffix is attached only to the last member in a compound number. The suffix should be written in full after figures: 1 :nc:, 2 nc:, 3 UncU, etc. Some abbreviate it to c:, cU, etc. The suffix also appears in: kaCinci `how manyeth?'; sonuncu `last' (son `end, last'); f:la=ninci `so-manyeth'. Roman numerals are used to indicate centuries and with names of sovereigns and formal events such as congresses and exhibitions; as a rule the ordinal suffix is not then written but a full stop may follow the numeral: XX or XX. asir `the twentieth (y:rm:nc:) century'; XXVIII or XXVIII. I+zm:r Enternasyonal Fuari `Twenty-eighth (y:rm: sek:z:nc:) International Fair of Izmir'. The Roman numeral may precede or follow a sovereign's name; `Selim the Third' may be written Sel:m III, III Sel:m, or III. Sel:m, all three being read as UCUncU Sel:m. The first six Arabic ordinals are sometimes used with names of sovereigns in Persian izafet. They are: evvel 1st rab: 4th san: 2nd ham:s 5th sal:s 3rd sad:s 6th All the as are long. Mehemmed-: san: == :k:nc: Mehmet, Muhammad II; Sel:m-: sal:s == UCUncU Sel:m, Selim III. 5. Distributives. These answer the question kaCar? `how many each?' and are formed by adding to the cardinal the suffix -er after a consonant, -Ser after a vowel: b:rer one each sek:zer eight each :k:Ser two each dokuzar nine each UCer three each onar ten each d0rder four each on b:rer eleven each beSer five each y:rm:Ser twenty each altiSar six each otuzar thirty each yed:Ser seven each kirkar forty each etc. As with the ordinals, the suffix is attached only to the last element of compounds: y:rm: UCer `23 each'; :k: yUz ell: dokuzar `259 each'. With whole hundreds and thousands, how- ever, it is more usual nowadays to attach the distributive suffix to the number preceding the yUz or b:n: :k:Ser yUz rather than :k: yUzer for `200 each'; beSer b:n rather than beS b:ner for `5,000 each'. The two foreign borrowings m:lyon and m:lyar never take the distributive suffix: b:rer m:lyon l:ra `a million lira each'; altiSar m:lyar `six thousand million each'. The distributive of yarim is irregular, taking the post-vocalic -Sar despite its final consonant: yarimSar `half each'. The suffix is not attached to buCuk but to the preceding whole number: y:rm: yed:Ser buCuk `twenty-seven and a half each'. :k: k:S: b:rer yil altiSar ay hap:s cezasina mahku=m ed:lm:Slerd:r `two people have each been sentenced to one year and six months' imprisonment' (`one-each year, six-each months'); in figures, 1 er yil 6 Sar ay. A frequent idiomatic use of b:rer is seen in: askerler:m:z, b:rer aslan g:b: dUSmana saldirdi `our soldiers attacked the enemy like so many lions' (lit. `like one-each lion, each one like a lion'). Like b:r, b:rer may come between adjective and noun: muharr:r:n mUSahedeler: bu hususta canli b:rer m:sal teSk:l etmekted:r `the author's observations constitute so many vivid examples in this connexion' (lit. `vivid one-each example, each one a vivid example'). kaCar `how many each?' when repeated means `in lots of how many?' Thus kaCar k:raz y:yorsunuz `how many cherries each are you eating?' but k:razlari kaCar kaCar y:yorsunuz? `how many at a time, at a mouthful, are you eating the cherries?' Cf. XII, 1. 6. Collectives. The suffix -:z after consonants, -z after vowels, makes numerals denoting twins, triplets, etc.: :k:-z, UC-Uz, d0rd-Uz, beS-:z. altiz, yed:z, etc., are theoretically possible but seem never to be used, for reasons biological rather than gram- matical. The collectives are mostly used as nouns but they can qualify a noun, usually in the plural: :k:zler or :k:z Cocuklar (rarely :k:z Cocuk) `twins'; UCUzler `triplets'; UCUz kizlar (rarely UCUz kiz) `girl triplets'; d0rdUzler `quadruplets'; d0rdUz kardeSler `quadruplet brothers'; D:onne beS:zler: `the Dionne quintuplets'. The suffix -l: may be added, e.g. beS:zl: Samdan `five-branched candlestick'. 7. Dice numbers. Two dice are employed in the game of tavla `backgammon' and the various possible throws are named in a curious mixture of Turkish and Persian: 1-1 hepyek 3-3 dUse 1-2 :k:b:r or yekdU 3-4 Carise or c:harise 1-3 seyek 3-5 pencUse 1-4 CarUyek or c:hariyek 3-6 SeSUse 1-5 pencUyek 4-4 d0rtCar or d0rtc:har 1-6 SeSyek 4-5 beSd0rt 2-2 dubara 4-6 SeS:Car or SeSc:har 2-3 sebaydU 5-5 dUbeS 2-4 CarUdU or c:haridU 5-6 SeSbeS 2-5 pencUdU 6-6 dUSeS 2-6 SeS:dU Not all these terms are recorded in the dictionaries and some other variant spellings may be found. Playing-card numbers are formed with -l:; the ace is b:rl:, the deuce :k:l: and so on up to the ten, onlu. VII. POSTPOSITIONS 1. General observations. The functions of some English pre- positions are performed in Turkish by the case-suffixes. Those of the rest are performed by postpositions, which follow the word they govern. A few of them can appear as suffixes, but the majority are independent words. Those listed as primary are variously construed with the absolute, genitive, dative, and ablative cases. The only more-or-less current postposition governing the accusa- tive is the obsolescent mUtaakip (A) `following, after': z:yafet-: mUtaakip `after the banquet'. Those listed as secondary post- positions (`postpositional expressions' is another possible term) are nouns in the dative, locative, or ablative case, linked by izafet to the word they govern. An English analogy would be to call `in' and `before' primary and `on the inside of' and `in front of' secondary prepositions. 2. Primary postpositions with absolute case: Uzere, Uzre on :Cre in Uzere is mostly used with the infinitive in -mek (X, 2 (d)) but may occasionally be found with other substantives: yol Uzere `on the road'; a=det: Uzere `in accordance with his custom'. :Cre is obsolete except in archaizing poetry: c:han :Cre `in the world'. 3.Primary postpositions with absolute or genitive case: g:b: like kadar (A) as much as :le with :C:n for These take the genitive of the personal pronouns ben, sen, o, b:z, and s:z, the demonstrative pronouns bu, Su, and o and the interrogative k:m. All other substantives, including pronouns pluralized by -ler, appear before these postpositions in the absolute case. Colloquially, however, even the pronouns listed above are used in the absolute case before these postpositions. This is particularly frequent with k:m; instead of k:m:nle, k:m:n :C:n, and k:m:n g:b: `with whom?', `for whom?', `like whom?', one hears k:mle, k:m :C:n, and k:m g:b:, the last being a more respectable solecism than the first two. (a) g:b: : ben:m g:b: b:r adam `a man like me'; sen:n g:b: `like you'; b:z:m g:b: or b:zler g:b: `like us'; onlar g:b: `like them'; bUlbUl g:b: `like a nightingale'. The word may also serve as a noun: bu g:b:ler `people like these' (lit. `these likes'); it can also stand in definite izafet with a pronoun--bu-nun g:b:-s: `the like of this'--or in indefinite izafet with a noun--bu adam g:b:s: `the like of this man'. A common locution is 0yle g:b:-m-e gel:yor k: `it seems to me as if ...' (`it so comes to-my-like that ...')- g:b:-ler-den, in apposition to a preceding word or clause, means `on the lines of, of the order of': k0ylU, mem- leket:n efend:s:d:r, g:b:lerden b:r nutuk `a speech on the lines of ``the peasant is the master of the country'''. (b) kadar is in origin an Arabic word for `amount', which helps explain its Turkish use: b:r saat kadar CaliStim `I worked for about an hour, as much as an hour' (`an hour amount'); y:rm:, y:rm: beS kadar k:S: `some twenty or twenty-five people'; taS kadar sert `hard as stone' (`stone amount hard'); o adam kadar zeng:n `as rich as that man'; f:l kadar :r: `huge as an elephant'. With the genitive of pronouns: onun kadar zeng:n `as rich as he'; s:z:n kadar b:r Cocuk `a child as big (or ``old'') as you'. When it follows the absolute case of bu, Su, or o, these function not as pronouns but as demonstrative adjectives, and the resulting bu, Su, or o kadar may be adverbial as well as adjectival: O kadar gUldUk `we laughed so much'; bu kadar para `this much money'. (c) :le has not only the comitative sense of English `with' but also denotes the instrument: k:m-:n :le g:tt:n:z? `with whom did you go?', vapur :le g:tt:n:z `you went by boat'; bunu zamk :le yapiStirdim `I stuck this with glue'. Note also: k:lo :le satmak `to sell by the kilogramme'; para :le satmak `to sell for money'. Sometimes it must be translated `because of'. It may be suffixed; the : is dropped after a consonant and becomes y after a vowel, the resulting -le or -yle being subject to vowel harmony: k:m:nle `with whom?'; vapurla `by boat'; gUmrUkCUyle `with the customs-officer'; kariyla `with the woman'. After the third-person suffix it appears as an invariable -yle: kari-si his wife karisiyle with his wife Cek:C-: his hammer Cek:C:yle with his hammer g0z-U his eye g0zUyle with his eye omuz-u his shoulder omuzuyle with his shoulder Although this rule reflects the normal educated pronunciation, many people neglect it, writing karisiyla, omuzuyla. Less often, the vowel of the third-person suffix is combined with the post- position to make an invariable -(s):yle: karis:yle, g0z:yle, omuz:yle. Colloquial alternatives to :le are :len and :nen. Instead of ben:mle, onunla `with me, with him', one hears benle or bennen, onla or onnan, in the informal speech even of educated people. (d) :C:n (for which the older pronunciation :CUn is not un- common) translates most senses of English `for': bunu yurd-un :y:l:G-: :C:n yapti `he did this for the good of the country'; bunu s:z:n :C:n aldim `I bought this for you'; yolculuk :C:n hazir- liklar `preparations for the journey'; b0yle b:r ev :C:n bu kadar para ver:l:r m:? `does one pay so much money for such a house?' It also renders `about' as in `what do you think about this pro- posal?' bu tekl:f :C:n ne dUSUnUyorsun? With the infinitive, rarely with the third-person imperative, it expresses purpose; with the personal participle, cause (XI, 24). As an archaism it may be found suffixed, as -C:n or -CUn after consonants, -yC:n or -yCUn after vowels, the forms in U appearing when the vowel of the preceding syllable is rounded: sen:n-C:n `for you'; onun-CUn `for him'; muhabbet:-yC:n `for love of him'; komSu-yCUn `for the neighbour'. 4. [MISSING: Postpositions with Dative Case?] g0re, nazaran (A) according to doGru towards karSi against kadar (A),-dek, deG:n as far as da:r (A) concerning raGmen (A) in spite of :nat (A) in despite of n:speten (A) in proportion to The equivalents of these words are italicized in the translations of the examples which follow. radyo'ya g0re, hava gUzel olacak `according to the radio, the weather is going to be fine'; bu vaz:yet-e g0re `in view of this situation'; yen: ev, tam onlar-a g0re `the new house is just right for them'. In the first two examples, g0re could be replaced by nazaran. See also the last paragraph on this page, and note bulunduGuna g0re on p. 165. k0y-e doGru yUrUdUk `we walked towards the village'; sabah-a doGru uyandim `towards morning I awoke'. hang: takim-a karSi oyniyacaksiniz? `against which team are you going to play?'; bu suClama-ya karSi ne s0yleyeb:ld:? `what could he say in reply to this accusation?'; den:z-e karSi oturduk `we sat facing the sea'; sabah-a karSi uyandim `towards morning I awoke'. k0y-e kadar yUrUdUk `we walked as far as the village'; akSam-a kadar konuStuk `we talked until evening'; 0Gle-ye kadar gelecek `he will come by noon'; b:r saat-e kadar gelecek `he will come in an hour'; b:r kaC gUn-e kadar gelecek `he will come in a few days'. The provincialism -dek or deG:n is favoured by modernists as a native equivalent of kadar as a postposition with the dative (but not with the absolute or genitive as in (3). -dek is usually suffixed but never changes its vowel: k0yedek, akSamadek. The rarer deG:n is usually written separately: k0ye deG:n, akSama deG:n. atom bombasi-n-a da:r b:r konferans `a lecture about the atom-bomb'. Modernists prefer Uzer:ne (#6) to da:r. genCl:G-:-n-e raGmen bUyUk b:r sanatka**rdir `in spite of her youth she is a great artist'. The neologism karSin has been proposed as an alternative but has not won general acceptance. baba-si-n-a :nat okula g:tm:yor just to spite his father he doesn't go to school'. ben:mk:-n-e n:speten s:z:nk: Cok pahali `in proportion to mine, compared with mine, yours is very expensive'. The modernist alternative is g0re. n:speten as an adverb means `relatively'. A number of adjectives are construed with a dative, e.g. a:t (A) `belonging (to)', mukab:l (A) `in return (for)', aykiri `contrary (to)'. They are mentioned here because in some contexts they may be parsed as postpositions. 5. Primary postpositions with ablative case: evvel (A), 0nce before bu yana since yana on the side of :Cer: inside dolayi, 0tUrU because of baSka besides, apart from :t:baren (A) with effect from See also #9, end, and XII, 10. EXAMPLES: bugUn-den evvel or 0nce `before today'; toplanti- dan sonra ` after the meeting'. Erzurum'dan sonra yol nasil? `how is the road beyond Erzurum?'; aGustos-tan ber: or bu yana `since August'; g0l-den ber: hava gUzel `this side of the lake the weather is fine'; aydin-in :y:-s: her zaman halk-tan yana-dir `the best type of intellectual (II, 22 (a)) is always on the side of the people'; para-dan yana durum k0tU `as regards> money the position is bad'; dakt:lo-dan yana Cok tal:hl:y:m `I am very lucky as regards secretarial assistance' (`on-the-side-of typist'); b:r ant:kaci-dan :Cer: g:rd:k `we went inside an antique-dealer<'s shop>'; bu-n-dan dolayi g:tmed:k `because of this we did not go' (the synonymous 0tUrU is far rarer); b:r dayi-dan baSka h:Cb:r akrabasi yok `he has no relative apart from an uncle' (two Arabic synonyms are maada and gayr:, neither very frequent); perSembe-den :t:baren her gUn `every day, starting from Thursday'. 6. Secondary postpositions: I. The words in the following list are all nouns and may be used in any case and with any personal suffix: ara-miz-da `in between us' (`in our interval'); arka-niz- dan `from behind you' (`from your back'); masa-nin Ust-U-n-U s:ld: `she wiped the top of the table'. It is only when they are used in izafet with another noun and in the dative, locative, or ablative case that they correspond in function to English prepositions and are called postpositions. alt underside karSi opposite side ara interval, space between orta middle arka, art back 0n front baS immediate vicinity peS (P) space behind diS, har:C (A) exterior Ust, Uzer-, fevk (A) top etraf(A), Cevre surroundings yan side :C, dah:l (A) interior To these may be added the adverbs of place listed in XII, 10. EXAMPLES: topu masa-nin alt-i-n-a atti `he threw the ball under the table'; ceket-: kol-u-nun alt-i-n-da, parkta gez:- yordu `his jacket under his arm, he was strolling in the park'; araba-nin alt-i-n-dan Cikti `he emerged from under the car'. :k: ev-:n ara-si-n-a g:rd: `he entered between the two houses'; :k: ev:n arasinda bekled: `he waited between the two houses'; :k: ev:n arasindan Cikti `he emerged from between the two houses'. In such phrases as `between A and B', `and' is translated by the postposition :le : DoGu :le (or DoGuyla) Bati arasinda `be- tween East and West'; daG :le (daGla) irmaGin arasinda `between the mountain and the river'. Note that in the first example, where `East' and `West' are broad general terms, the izafet is indefinite, while in the second, where a specific river is intended, the izafet is definite, with irmak `river' in the genitive. kapi-nin arka-si-n-a (or ard-i-n-a) saklandi `he hid behind the door' (dative of end of motion); kapinin arkasinda (ardinda) durdu `he stood behind the door' (lit., as in American English, `in back of the door'); kapinin arkasindan (ardindan) Cikti `he emerged from behind the door'. masa-si-nin baS-i-n-a oturduk `we sat down at (``to-the- immediate-vicinity-of'') his table'; s:la=h baSina! `to arms !'; vaz:fe baSinda `on duty'; m:krofon baSinda Sarki s0ylemek `to sing songs at the microphone'. baS may be defined by alt as in dam-in altbaSinda `im- mediately under (`'in-the-underside-vicinity-of'') the roof'. Note also omuz baS-im-da duruyor `he is standing at my shoulder', lit. `in-my-shoulder-vicinity', omuz baSim being an izafet group with the first-person suffix replacing the third; see II, 24. v:la=yet-:n sinirlar-i diS-i-n-a (or, less commonly, har:c- :-n-e) Cikmadi `he did not go outside (``to-the-outside-of'') the boundaries of the province'; surlar-in diSinda (har:c:nde' oturuyorlar `they are living outside the city-walls'; b:na-nin diSindan (har:c:nden) b:r ses geld: `a voice came from outside the building'. The next two examples well illustrate the difference between the definite and indefinite izafets: okul-un diSinda b:r taks: bulunmaktadir `there is a taxi outside the school'; b:r m:lyon Cocuk okul diSinda bulunmak- tadir `a million children are outside school' (i.e. not attending any school). etraf is far commoner than its modern replacement Cevre: Sehr-:n etrafinda (Cevres:nde) Cok baG var `there are many orchards round the city'. dah:l, on the other hand, is fast going out of use. den:z-:n :C-:-n-e (dah:l-:-n-e) `into the sea'; aca:p b:r kariSiklik :C:nde (dah:l:nde) `in a strange confusion'; kUCUk kahve-n:n :C:nden (dah:l:nden) `from inside the small cafe'. We have already met karSi as a primary postposition. As a noun it means `opposite side', so in izafet as a secondary postposition it means `to/on/from the opposite side of', according to case. It is particularly common in the locative in the sense of `vis-a-vis, facing, confronted with': :nsan iztirab-i karSi-si-n-da aydin ne d:yor? `confronted with human affliction, what does the intellectual say?' kalabaliG-in orta-si-n-a `to the middle of the crowd'; kalabaliGin ortasinda `in the middle of the crowd'; kalabali- Gin ortasindan `from or through the middle of the crowd'. sahne-n:n 0n-U-n-e `to the front of the stage'; sahnen:n 0nUnde `in front of or at the front of the stage'; sahnen:n 0nUnden `from or through the front of the stage'. kilavuz-un peS-:-n-e dUStUk `we began to follow (``we-fell to-the-rear-of'') the guide'. `To run after' is peS:nde or peS:nden koSmak. The hyphen after Uzer in the list above is to indicate that this word, alone among nouns, is never found without a personal suffix. dUSman-in Ust-U-n-e or Uzer-:-n-e yUrUdUler `they marched onto the enemy'; yayla-nin UstUnden or Uzer:nden :nd:ler `they came down from-on-top-of the plateau'. uzer:ne and UstUne are commoner than Uzer:nde and UstUnde for `on' meaning `on the subject of': tarih Uzer:ne or UstUne araStirmalari `his researches on history'. They are also used for `on top of' in the sense of `in addition to': b:ra Uzer:ne or UstUne Sarap :Cme `don't drink wine on top of beer'. See also akSamUstU, etc., XII, 13 (a). fevk is little used nowadays: kale-n:n fevkinda (I, 35, penultimate paragraph) b:r bayrak var `there is a flag over the citadel'. pencere-m-:n yan-i-n-a geld: `he came beside my window'; pencerem:n yaninda b:r aGaC var `there is a tree beside my window'; pencerem:n yanindan ayrildi `he departed from- beside my window'. yan may be qualified by Ust: kutu-nun Ustyaninda `on the top-side of the box'. It is also compounded with baS: :stasyon- un yanibaSinda `just beside the station'. The first i in this word, though originally the third-person suffix, is invariable: yani- baSimda `just beside me'. art, arka, 0n, peS, and yan with a personal suffix but no case- ending are compounded with sira `row' to make postpositions, the sira conveying the sense of close proximity: kardeS-:-n:n ard-i sira yUrUdU `he walked just-behind his brother'; kla=s:k dersler-:n yan-i sira, marangozluk dersler: ver:l:r `side by side with the classical lessons, carpentry lessons are given'; 0n-Um sira yUrUdU `he walked just-in-front-of-me'. With kiyi `shore' is made the adverb kiyisira `along the shore'. The nouns discussed above are also used as adjectives: alt dudak `bottom lip'; ara kapi `communicating door'; arka bahCe `back garden'; diS t:caret `external trade'; :C t:caret `internal trade'. In the official terms for External and Internal Affairs, however, diS and :C are nouns: diS :Sler-:, :C :Sler-:. 7. Secondary postpositions: II. The nouns in the first column below (which, as nouns, mean respectively `truth', `side', `cause (or face)', `regard', `name') are also used to make postpositions, but differ from the previous group in that in the meanings shown they are used only in the case shown, though they may change for person. That is to say, whereas, for example, `under' may be altina, altinda, or altindan according to context,`concerning' can only be hakkinda in the locative, while `concerning me' is hakkimda and `concerning you' hakkinizda, again in the locative. hak (A) hakkinda concerning taraf (A) tarafindan by, through the agency of yUz yUzUnden because of bakim bakimindan from the point of view of nam (P) namina in the way of These are used in indefinite izafet only; i.e. the noun they follow is never in the genitive. Any exceptions to this rule are apparent only, as the examples will show. :nkila=p hakkinda b:r nutuk s0yled: `he gave a speech about the revolution'; kardeS-: tarafindan uzaklaStirildi `he was sent away by his brother'; o adam yUzUnden kan akacak `because of that man, blood will flow'; protokol bakimindan haklidir `from the point of view of protocol, he is right'; para namina b:r Sey:m yok `I have nothing in the way of money, nothing you could call money'. If we now make the izafet definite in each example, i.e. if we put the first noun of each into the genitive--:nkila=bin, kardeS:n:n, o adamin, protokolun, paranin--then hakkinda, tarafindan, yUzUnden, bakim- indan, and namina will revert to their literal meanings: `in the truth of the revolution'; `he was sent away from his brother's side'; `blood will flow from that man's face'; `he is right from protocol's regard'; `I have nothing for money's name', the first and the last two being as meaningless in Turkish as in English. bakimindan has almost entirely supplanted nokta-: nazarin- dan (II, 26). The rule that these postpositions are used only in indefinite izafet is not broken by, for example, o-nun hakkinda `con- cerning him' any more than it is by ben:m hakkimda `concern- ing me'; the pronoun in the genitive is not in izafet with the following hakk- but merely reinforces its personal suffix. husus (A) `particular'--bu hususta :t:razim yok `I have no objection in this particular, in this regard'--is used as a post- positional expression especially with the infinitive of the verb: oraya g:tmek hususunda :t:razim yok `I have no objection in-the-matter-of going there'. 8.Secondary postpositions: III. The nouns in the next list are also used only in the case shown (for the ending of boyunca see XII, 2) but differ from those in the previous section in that they can be used in definite izafet. In fact, however, they are mostly found in indefinite izafet, even when they follow a defined noun. boy length boyunca along esna (A) duration esnasinda in the course of zarf (A) container zarfinda during saye (P) shadow sayes:nde thanks to uGur luck uGruna, for the sake of uGrunda yer place yer:ne instead of zarfinda and esnasinda seem hardly ever to be used in definite izafet, but one hesitates to say they are never so used. EXAMPLES: Kizil Irmak (IrmaGin) boyunca `along the Red River'- TUrk tar:h-: (tar:h-:-n:n) boyunca `throughout Turkish history'; muharebe esnasinda `in the course of the battle'; muharebe zarfinda `during the battle'; Ahmet (Ahmed'in) sayes:nde her Sey :y: oldu `thanks to Ahmet, everything has become all right'; Cocuk, akl-i (akl-i-nin) sayes:nde kurtuldu `the child was saved, thanks to his intelli- gence'; vatan-i (vatan-i-nin) uGruna/uGrunda can verd: `he gave his life for his country's sake'; as:stan, profes0r-U (pro- fes0r-U-nUn) yer:ne derse g:tt: `the assistant went to the class instead of his professor'; ben: eSek yer:ne alma `don't take me for a donkey'. esna is also used in the locative, defined by a demonstrative: bu esnada `during this time'. 9. leh, aleyh. The Arabic la-h' `for him' and `alay-h' `against him' make Turkish secondary postpositions in the locative: leh- :-n-de `for, pro' and aleyh-:-n-de `against, contra'; tekl:f-:n leh:nde/aleyh:nde konuStu `he spoke for/against the motion'. Although the final h is originally the Arabic third-singular mas- culine pronoun, these words can be used with the suffixes of any of the three persons: leh-:m:z-de konuStu `he spoke for us'; aleyh-:n:z-de konuStu `he spoke against you'. They may also be used in the locative without personal suffixes as primary postpositions following an ablative: tekl:f-ten lehte m:s:n:z, aleyhte m:s:n:z? `are you for or against the motion?' 10. The preposition :la=. This, the Arabic ila** `to, towards', is the only preposition used in Turkish as an independent word, as distinct from, for example, the Arabic bi in b:lhassa `in par- ticular' or the Italian a in alafranga `alla franca, in European style'. It is employed between numbers: on beS :la= y:rm: k:S: `fifteen to twenty people', written in figures 15-20. Modernists avoid the word and would read these figures as on beSten y:r- m:ye kadar `from 15 to 20' or on beS :le y:rm: arasinda `between 15 and 20'. Because of the resemblance between :la= and :le, the semiliterate trying to show off produces a horrid synthesis: on beS :la= y:rm: arasinda. Another example of the correct use: taSlar, yarim :la= b:r metre kalinliGinda toprakla 0rtUlUr `the stones are covered with earth to (lit. `in') a depth of a half to one metre'. VIII. THE VERB 1. The stem. The form of the verb which is cited in the dictionaries is the infinitive in -mek, e.g. b:lmek `to know', bulmak `to find', g0rmek `to see', anlamak `to understand'. When one is describing the conjugation of the verb it is more convenient to omit this ending and cite only the stem: b:l-, bul-, g0r-, anla-. 2. The verb `to be'. We shall first deal with those parts of the anomalous and defective verb `to be' which are used as auxiliaries in the conjugation of all verbs. In the oldest texts the infinitive `to be' was ermek, but the stem er-, abraded in the course of time, now appears as :-. Some grammarians consequently speak of `the verb :mek', but no such form ever existed. 3. The present tense of `to be'. The forms of the present tense of `to be' exist only as enclitic suffixes, subject to the fourfold harmony. In origin they are suffixed personal pronouns, with the exception of the third person -d:r, originally turur `he stands'. -d:r is placed in parentheses in the following table as a reminder that in Turkish (as in Arabic and Russian), simple `A is B' equivalences are expressed without a copula. See #4. When a suffix beginning with a vowel follows a vowel, a y is inserted to preserve the identity of both. Present: `I am', etc. Singular 1 -:m -Um -im -um 2 -s:n -sUn -sin -sun 3 (-d:r/t:r) (-dUr/tUr) (-dir/tir) (-dur/tur) Plural 1 -:z -Uz -iz -uz 2 -s:n:z -sUnUz -siniz -sunuz 3 -(d:r/t:r)ler -(dUr/tUr)ler -(dir/tir)lar -(dur/tur)lar 4. Uses of -d:r. In writing and in formal speech -d:r expresses the copula: kizin adi, Fatma'dir `the girl's name is Fatima'; enerj: kaynaklarimiz bol-dur `our sources of power are abundant'. It will be noticed that the verb in the latter example is singular; this is customary with inanimate plural subjects and possible with animate plural subjects. See further XVI, 1. In ordinary speech -d:r is not used in such simple `A==B' sentences; one says kizin adi Fatma; enerj: kaynaklarimiz bol. -d:r is generally used as a copula in speech as well as in writing: (a) When the predicate is a noun in such a sentence as: en Cok sevd:G:m Sa:r Ned:m'd:r `my favourite poet is Nedim', where the omission of -d:r might lead to misunderstanding: `my favourite poet, Nedim, ...'. (b) When the subject is a pronoun understood from the con- text: yaman b:r adam-dir `he is a remarkable man'. There is an alternative, in the colloquial, of using the third-person pronoun instead of -d:r : o, yaman b:r adam or yaman b:r adam, o. (c) When the subject is a noun which follows the predicate: yaman b:r adamdir, amcaniz `he is a remarkable man, your uncle'. (d) When the subject is a phrase containing a postposition and the predicate is a noun-clause introduced by k: (XIII, l5): onun sayes:nde-d:r k: muvaffak olduk `it is thanks to him that we have succeeded'; bundan dolayi-dir k: g:tmed:m `it is because of this that I did not go'. In terms of the equivalent English, one could include these two examples under (b) above. This is the only one of the four situations in which the -d:r is never omitted. Otherwise, the use of -d:r in informal speech is either for emphasis or, more often, to indicate a supposition. Whereas the written words ves:ka kasa-da-dir mean `the document is in the safe', the same words in informal speech mean `the document is surely in the safe, must be in the safe', or, less commonly, a confident `the document is in the safe'; only the tone of voice shows which of the two is intended. If the speaker is stating a simple fact, which he does not think it necessary to emphasize, he will say ves:ka kasada. The following are possible answers to the spoken question Cocuklar nerede? `where are the children?' bahCede in the garden bahCedeler they are in the garden bahCeded:rler they are in the garden (emphatic) or they are surely in the garden (supposition) bahCedelerd:r they are surely in the garden (supposition) One manifestation of the rapid closing of the gap between the written and spoken languages is that -d:r is more and more omitted in writing when it merely expresses the copula. For -d:r suffixed to finite verbs see #42. 5. Examples of the present tense of `to be'. `I am, etc., at home' Singular Plural 1 evde-y-:m evde-y-:z 2 evde-s:n evde-s:n:z 3 evde(-d:r) evde(-d:r)-ler `I am, etc., Turkish' Singular Plural 1 TUrk-Um TUrk-Uz 2 TUrk-sUn TUrk-sUnUz 3 TUrk(-tUr) TUrk(-tUr)-ler `I am, etc., ready Singular Plural 1 hazir-im hazir-iz 2 hazir-sin hazir-siniz 3 hazir(-dir) hazir(-dir)-lar `I am, etc., responsible' Singular Plural 1 sorumlu-y-um sorumlu-y-uz 2 sorumlu-sun sorumlu-sunuz 3 sorumlu(-dur) sorumlu(-dur)-lar 6. Forms based on :-. The finite forms of `to be' based on :-, namely the past, the conditional, and the inferential, all exist both as independent words and as suffixes. When suffixed, the : of the stem is lost after consonants and changes to y after vowels, while the remainder of the form is subject both to the fourfold vowel harmony and the alternation d/t. 7. The past tense of `to be'. The base, i.e. the third singular, is :d: and the other persons are formed by adding to it -m for the first and -n for the second singular, and -k for the first, -n:z for the second, and -ler for the third plural. `I was', etc. Suffixed after vowels Singular 1 :d:m -yd:m -ydUm -ydim -ydum 2 :d:n -yd:n -ydUn -ydin -ydun 3 :d: -yd: -ydU -ydi -ydu Plural 1 :d:k -yd:k -ydUk -ydik -yduk 2 :d:n:z -yd:n:z -ydUnUz -ydiniz -ydunuz 3 :d:ler -yd:ler -ydUler -ydilar -ydular Suffixed after consonants Singular 1 -d:m/tim/dUm/tUm/dim/tim/dum/tum 2 -d:n/t:n/dUn/tUn/din/tin/dun/tun 3 -d:/t:/dU/tU/di/ti/du/tu Plural 1 -d:k/t:k/dUk/tUk/dik/tik/duk/tuk 2 -d:n:z/t:n:z/dUnUz/tUnUz/diniz/tiniz/dunuz/tunuz 3 -d:ler/t:ler/dUler/tUler/dilar/tilar/dular/tular EXAMPLES: evde :d:m or evdeyd:m `I was at home'; TUrk :d: or TUrktU `he was Turkish'; hazir :d:k or hazirdik `we were ready'; sorumlu :d:n:z or sorumluydunuz `you were responsible. 8. The present conditional of `to be': `if I am', etc. The base is :se and the personal endings are the same as those of the past. Suffixed Singular After vowels After consonants 1 :sem -ysem -ysam -sem -sam 2 :sen -ysen -ysan -sen -san 3 :se -yse -ysa -se -sa Plural 1 :sek -ysek -ysak -sek -sak 2 :sen:z -ysen:z -ysaniz -sen:z -saniz 3 :seler -yseler -ysalar -seler -salar EXAMPLES: evde :sem or evdeysem `if I am at home'; TUrk :se or TUrkse `if he is Turkish'; hazir :sek or hazirsak `if we are ready'; sorumlu :sen:z or sorumluysaniz `if you are responsible'. 9. The past conditional of `to be': `if I was', etc. This expresses open past condition as in: `if I was right, why did you not agree with me?' For the remote or unfulfilled condition, as in `if I had been right,would you have agreed with me?', see #34. The various persons of the present conditional are added to the past base: id:-:sem > :d:ysem or, when suffixed, -yd:ysem. Alterna- tively, the suffixed third singular of the present conditional is added to the various persons of the past: :d:m-se. The latter alternative is, however, provincial and colloquial, so much so that in writing it occurs only in the suffixed forms -d:mse or -yd:mse, etc.; the theoretically possible independent forms :d:mse, etc,, seem never to be used. Comparison with #7 will show that the following paradigm has been simplified to the extent of three-quarters of its full size by the omission of the suffixed forms (a) beginning with t, as used after unvoiced consonants, and (b) with the rounded vowels U and u. Suffixed Singular After vowels After consonants 1 :d:ysem -yd:ysem -ydiysam -d:ysem -diysam 2 :d:ysen -yd:ysen -ydiysan -d:ysen -diysan 3 :d:yse -yd:yse -ydiysa -d:yse -diysa Plural After vowels After consonants 1 :d:ysek -yd:ysek -ydiysak -d:ysek -diysak 2 :d:ysen:z -yd:ysen:z -ydisaniz -d:ysen:z -diysaniz 3 :d:yseler -yd:yseler -ydiysalar -d:yseler -diysalar Suffixed Singular After vowels After consonants 1 -yd:mse -ydimsa -d:mse -dimsa 2 -yd:nse -ydinsa -d:nse -dinsa Plural 1 -yd:kse -ydiksa -d:kse -diksa 2 -yd:n:zse -ydinizsa -d:n:zse -dinizsa 3 -yd:yseler -ydiysalar -d:yseler -diysalar EXAMPLES: evde :d:ysem, evdeyd:ysem, or evdeyd:mse `if I was at home'; TUrk :d:yse or TUrktUyse `if he was Turkish'; hazir :d:ysek, hazirdiysak or hazirdiksa `if we were ready'; sorumlu :d:ysen:z, sorumluyduysaniz or sorumluydunuzsa `if you were responsible'. 10. The inferential. The inferential present/past :m:S means `he is/was said to be' or `I infer that he is/was although I had not realized it before'. Though some grammarians have termed it the dubitative, in itself it does not imply doubt or uncertainty; e.g. a sentence beginning Orhan hasta :m:S `Orhan is said to be ill' may continue `and we ought to visit the poor man' or `but I bet he's malingering'. Similarly, a speaker who says ben ger:c: :m:S:m `I am said to be reactionary' may go on `and it's true and I'm proud of it' or `but this is a wicked slander'. It is formed by adding to the base :m:S, or the suffixed -ym:S or -m:S, etc., the present suffixes of the verb `to be', with the exception of -d:r. Singular Suffixed after vowels 1 :m:S:m -ym:S:m -ymUSUm -ymiSim -ymuSum 2 :m:Ss:n -ym:Ss:n -ymUSsUn -ymiSsin -ymuSsun 3 :m:S -ym:S -ymUS -ymiS -ymuS Plural Suffixed after vowels 1 :m:S:z -ym:S:z -ymUSUz -ymiSiz -ymuSuz 2 :m:Ss:n:z -ym:Ss:n:z -ymUSsUnUz -ymiSsiniz -ymuSsunuz 3 :m:Sler -ym:Sler -ymUSler -ymiSlar -ymuSlar Suffixed after consonants -m:S:m -mUSUm -miSim -muSum etc. The Ss of the second person is sometimes simplified in pro- nunciation, rarely in writing, to S: :m:S:n, :m:S:n:z. EXAMPLES: evde :m:S:m or evdeym:S:m `I am said to be at home'; TUrk im:S or TUrkmUS `he is said to be Turkish'; hazir im:S:z or hazirmiSiz `we are said to be ready'; sorumlu :m:Ss:n:z or sorumluymuSsunuz `you are said to be respon- sible'; k:md:r? `who is he?'; k:mm:S? `who is he supposed to be?'; gUnahimiz ne :m:S? `what is our sin said to be?' i.e. `what are we reported to have done that has offended you?' If told `the new Minister is a good man', yen: Bakan :y: b:r adam, one may reply :m:S or -miS, meaning `so we are told, but I have no first-hand knowledge of him'. ben m:Slere muSlara pek kulak vermem `I don't pay much heed to gossip' (lit. `I do not much give ear to m:Ses and muSes'). 11. The inferential conditional: `I gather that if I am/was' or `if I am/was, as they say', etc. The present conditional endings are suffixed to :m:S or its suffixed forms. Singular Suffixed after vowels 1 :m:Ssem -ym:Ssem -ymUSsem -ymiSsam -ymuSsam 2 :m:Ssen -ym:Ssen -ymUSsen -ymiSsan -ymuSsan 3 :m:Sse -ym:Sse -ymUSse -ymiSsa -ymuSsa Plural 1 :m:Ssek -ym:Ssek -ymUSsek -ymiSsak -ymuSsak 2 :m:Ssen:z -ym:Ssen:z -ymUSsen:z -ymiSsaniz -ymuSsaniz 3 :m:Sseler -ym:Sseler -ymUSseler -ymiSsalar -ymuSsalar Suffixed after comonants -m:Ssem -mUSsem -miSsam -muSsam etc. These forms, which are used in reported speech, are not often met with in writing. If someone says to you hazirsaniz yola Cikmalisiniz (#30) `if you are ready you ought to start off', you may report these words thus: ben hazir :m:Ssem (or hazir- miSsam) yola CikmaliymiSim `they are saying that if I am ready I ought to start off'. 12. The negative of `to be'. This is made by putting after deG:l `not' the suffixed forms, less commonly the independent forms, given above. (a) Present: `I am not', etc. Singular Plural 1 deG:l:m deG:l:z 2 deG:ls:n deG:ls:n:z 3 deG:l(d:r) deG:l(d:r)ler (b) Past: `I was not', etc. Singular 1 deG:ld:m or deG:l :d:m 2 deG:ld:n deG:l :d:n 3 deG:ld: deG:l :d: Plural 1 deG:ld:k deG:l :d:k 2 deG:ld:n:z deG:l :d:n:z 3 deG:ld:ler deG:l :d:ler (c) Present conditional: `if I am not', etc. Singular 1 deG:lsem or deG:l :sem 2 deG:lsen deG:l :sen 3 deG:lse deG:l :se Plural 1 deG:lsek deG:l :sek 2 deG:lsen:z deG:l :sen:z 3 deG:lseler deG:l :seler (deG:llerse) (d) Past conditional: `if I was not', etc. Singular 1 deG:l :d:ysem or deG:ld:ysem or deG:ld:mse 2 deG:l :d:ysen deG:ld:ysen deG:ld:nse 3 deG:l :d:yse deG:ld:yse deG:ld:yse Plural 1 deG:l :d:ysek deG:ld:ysek deG:ld:kse 2 deG:l :d:ysen:z deG:ld:ysen:z deG:ld:n:zse 3 deG:l :d:yseler deG:ld:yseler deG:ld:lerse (e) Inferential: `I am/was said not to be', `I infer that I am/was not', etc. Singular 1 deG:l :m:S:m or deG:lm:S:m 2 deG:l :m:Ss:n deG:lm:Ss:n 3 deG:l :m:S deG:lm:S Plural 1 deG:l :m:S:z deG:lm:S:z 2 deG:l :m:Ss:n:z deG:lm:Ss:n:z 3 deG:l :m:Sler deG:lm:Sler (f) Inferential conditional: `I gather that if I am not', `if I am not, as they say', etc. Singular 1 deG:l :m:Ssem or deG:lm:Ssem 2 deG:l :m:Ssen deG:lm:Ssen 3 deG:l :m:Sse deG:lm:Sse Plural 1 deG:l :m:Ssek deG:lm:Ssek 2 deG:l :m:Ssen:z deG:lm:Ssen:z 3 deG:l :m:Sseler deG:lm:Sseler deG:l alone means `not' as well as `is not', usually following the word it negates: bugUn deG:l, dUn geldi `he came yesterday, not today' (`this-day not, yesterday he-came'). When it precedes one of two parallel words, it indicates that that one is of less importance than the other: deG:l sen, ben de b:lmed:m `never mind about you, even I did not know'; deG:l parasini, hayatini kurtara- madi `never mind about his money, he couldn't save his life'. If the positions of deG:l and parasini were reversed, the meaning would be `it wasn't his money, it was his life that he could not save'. h:zmetC:y: deG:l, ben: koGdu `it wasn't the servant, it was me he threw out'; deG:l h:zmetC:y:, ben: b:le koGdu `never mind about the servant, he even threw me out'. The sense of `never mind about' is occasionally expressed by a following deG:l; see XXIV, 32. 13. Interrogative. The interrogative particle is m:, which turns the immediately preceding word into a question. It is written separately from the preceding word, but takes its vowel harmony from it: doGru `true', doGru mu? `true?'; bugUn mU? `today?'; yarin mi? `tomorrow?' It may even follow and turn into a ques- tion a word which is already interrogative; thus the reply to k:m geld:? `who came?' may be k:m m:? `do you ask ``who?''?' (literally ```who?''?'). The forms of the verb `to be' are appended or suffixed to it, but when -ler alone and not -d:rler is used for the third plural of the present tense the -ler precedes m:. (a) Present: `am I, etc., at home/Turkish/ready/responsible?' Singular 1 evde m:y:m TUrk mUyUm hazir miyim sorumlu muyum 2 ,, m:s:n ,, mUsUn ,, misin ,, musun 3 ,, m:(d:r) ,, mU(dUr) ,, mi(dir) ,, mu(dur) Plural 1 ,, m:y:z ,, mUyUz ,, miyiz ,, muyuz 2 ,, m:s:n:z ,, mUsUnUz ,, misiniz ,, musunuz evdeler m: TUrkler m: haziriar mi sorumlular mi 3 evde TUrk hazir sorumlu m:d:rler mUdUrler midirlar mudurlar (b) Past: `was I at home, etc.?' evde m: :d:m or evde m:yd:m TUrk mU :d:m TUrk mUydUm hazir mi :d:m hazir miydim sorumlu mu :d:m sorumlu muydum For the remaining persons see the conjugation of :d:m and its forms when suffixed after vowels, in #7. (c) Inferential: `am I said to be at home, etc.?' evde m: :m:S:m or evde m:ym:S:m TUrk mU :m:S:m TUrk mUymUSUm hazir mi :m:S:m hazir miymiSim sorumlu mu :m:S:m sorumlu muymuSum For the remaining persons see #10. Some grammarians complete the paradigm by setting out the interrogative of the conditional; present, past, and inferential: :sem m:, :d:ysem m:, :m:Ssem m:. This is unnecessary if it be borne in mind that m: functions simply as a question-mark. The `interrogative of the conditional' of the verb `to be' occurs only in such contexts as when someone is asked a question like `what shall we do if he is not at home?' evde deG:lse ne yapa- lim? and replies `if he is not at home?' evde deG:lse m:? See also #34 (e). 14. Negative-interrogative. m: and the appropriate part of the verb `to be' are placed after deG:l : evde deG:l m:y:m `am I not at home?' evde deG:l m: :d:m or evde deG:l m:yd:m `was I not at home?' evde deG:l m: :m:S:m or evde deG:l m:ym:S:m `am I not said to be/am I said not to be at home?' 15. The regular verb. This category includes all verbs other than the verb `to be'. If we look back over the preceding pages we see that the conjugation of the verb `to be' may be summarized as follows: there are two distinct sets of personal endings, which we may call Types I and II. Type I Type II Singular 1 -:m -m 2 -s:n -n 3 -(-d:r) -- Type I Type II Plural 1 -:z -k 2 -s:n:z -n:z 3 -(d:r)ler -ler Type I is the present tense, `I am', etc.; Type II is added to the base of the past tense :d: and of the conditional :se. The Type I endings are suffixed to :m:S to make the inferential: :m:S-:m, :m:S-s:n, etc. The conditional, i.e. :se plus the Type II endings, is added to the past base :d: to make the past conditional: :d:- yse-m, :d:-yse-n, etc. Added to the inferential base it makes the inferential conditional: :m:S-se-m, :m:S-se-n, etc. The same principle applies to the conjugation of the regular verb, but two other sets of personal endings are used in addition to Types I and II. Type III is confined to the subjunctive and Type IV to the imperative, which has no first person. Type III Type IV Singular 1 -ey:m 2 -es:n -- 3 -e -s:n Plural 1 -el:m 2 -esiniz -in, -iniz 3 -eler -s:nler By the addition of `characteristics' to the verb-stem the follow- ing tense- and mood-bases can be formed: 1. present 5. necessitative 2. future 6. d: -past 3. aorist 7 conditional 4. m:S-past 8. subjunctive The imperative is not included in this list because it has no characteristic. The term `tense- and mood-bases' is used in pre- ference to `tenses and moods' because from each base a variety of compound tenses and moods can be formed. Each base is also the third-person singular of its tense or mood. Only the d:-past, conditional, subjunctive, and imperative have endings of their own; all the other bases are substantival in origin and are verbalized by means of the verb `to be'. For this reason the device of sus- pended affixation is regularly used in the verb: just as, in English, there is no need to repeat the part of the verb `to be' in 'I was sitting in my room reading the paper', so in Turkish: odamda oturuyor<-dum ve> gazetey: okuyor-dum. The regularity of the verbal system will soon impress itself on the student. Where it has been thought unnecessary to set out a conjugation in full, the first and second persons of the singular and the third person of the plural have been given, as, in this last, alternative forms can occur, with the plural suffix preceding or following the personal suffix. The less common forms of the plural are shown in brackets. When alternative forms exist for a whole conjugation, the most usual is given first. A synopsis of the finite verb will be found on page 136. The occasional change of t to d before vowels must be borne in mind; thus the present base of et- `to do' is ed:yor, of g:t- `to go' g:d:yor, of tat- `to taste' tadiyor. Most stems in t, however, do not undergo this change: at- `to throw', atiyor ; tut- `to hold', tutuyor ; yat- `to lie down', yatiyor. 16. Present I. The characteristic of the base is an invariable -yor, originally an independent verb yorir, the aorist of the ancient yorimak `to go, walk'. It is suffixed directly to vowel- stems: er:- to melt, er:yor bUyU- to grow, bUyUyor tani- to recognize, taniyor koru- to protect, koruyor Final e/a of the stem changes before this suffix in accordance with the rule given in I, 36: bekle- to wait, bekl:yor g0zle- to observe, g0zlUyor anla- to understand, anliyor topla- to collect, topluyor The original final vowel of the stems b:le- `to sharpen' and yika- `to wash' is sometimes preserved in writing--b:leyor, yikayor-- in order to avoid confusion with the present of b:l- `to know' and yik- `to demolish': b:l:yor, yikiyor. With consonant-stems, the appropriate closed vowel is inserted before -yor : gel- to come, gel:yor g0r- to see, g0rUyor al- to take, aliyor koS- to run, koSuyor The accent is on the vowel preceding the -yor. 17. Uses of the present. This tense is used for actions either in progress or envisaged: Antalya'da CaliSiyor `he is working in Antalya'; kend:s:n: haftada :k: defa g0rUyorum `I see him twice a week'; yarin g:d:yoruz `we are going tomorrow'. As it can denote actions begun in the past and still going on, it is used in such sentences as :k: sene-d:r bu evde oturuyor lit. `it is two years he is living in this house' and burada haz:ran ayindan ber: oturuyor lit. `he is living here since the month of June', where English has the perfect `he has been living'. See also #25. 18. Paradigms of the present. To the base in -yor are added the suffixes of the verb `to be' except -d:r; both in the written and in the spoken language the addition of -d:r to the present tense indicates a supposition; see #42. (a) Present simple: aliyorum I am taking aliyoruz we are taking aliyorsun you are taking aliyorsunuz you are taking aliyor he is taking aliyorlar they are taking (b) Present past: aliyordum I was taking aliyorduk we were taking al:yordun you were taking aliyordunuz you were taking aliyordu he was taking aliyorlardi they were taking (aliyordular) Theoretically the separate forms aliyor :d:m, etc., might be expected but their use is in fact an Armenianism. (c) Present conditional: aliyorsam if I am taking aliyorsak if we are taking aliyorsan if you are taking aliyorsaniz if you are taking aliyorsa if he is taking aliyorlarsa if they are taking (aliyorsalar) (d) Past conditional: `if I was taking': Singular 1 aliyor :d:ysem or aliyorduysam or aliyordumsa 2 aliyor :d:ysen aliyorduysan aliyordunsa Plural 3 aliyor :d:yseler aliyorduysalar aliyorlardiysa (aliyorlar :d:yse) For the full conjugation cf. #9. (e) Inferential: `I am/was said to be taking' or `I gather that I am/was taking': Singular 1 aliyormuSum 2 aliyormuSsun Plural 3 aliyorlarmiS (aliyormuSlar) See #10. (f) Inferential conditional: `if I am/was, as they say, taking' or `I gather that if I am/was taking': Singular 1 aliyor :m:Ssem or aliyormuSsam 2 aliyor :m:Ssen aliyormuSsan Plural 3 aliyor :miSseler aliyormuSsalar (aliyorlar :m:Sse) (aliyorlarmiSsa) See #11. (g) Negative. The negative suffix is -me, added to the verb-stem before the characteristic; its vowel is subject to the rules given in I,36. bekle-me-yor > beklem:yor he is not waiting g0r-me-yor > g0rmUyor he is not seeing al-ma-yor > almiyor he is not taking koS-ma-yor > koSmuyor he is not running Plural (aliyorlar :d:yse) I am/was taking': Singular 1 aliyormuSum 2 aliyormuSsun Plural 3 aliyorlarmiS (aliyormuSlar) See #10. `I gather that if I am/was taking': Singular 1 aliyor :m:Ssem or aliyormuSsam 2 aliyor :m:Ssen aliyormuSsan Plural 3 aliyor :m:Sseler aliyormuSsalar To the present negative base thus formed, the suffixes of `to be' are added,just as with the positive base; for example, the negative conjugation of al- is exactly as shown in paragraphs (a) to (f), with the substitution of almiyor for aliyor throughout. (h) Interrogative. The appropriate interrogative form of `to be' is placed after the present base, positive or negative. As the inter- rogative particle turns the preceding word into a question, the literal meaning of, for example, almiyor muydunuz is `is it not-taking that you were?' `am I taking?' `am I not taking?' Singular 1 aliyor muyum almiyor muyum 2 aliyor musun almiyor musun 3 aliyor mu almiyor mu Plural 1 aliyor muyuz almiyor muyuz 2 aliyor musunuz almiyor musunuz 3 aliyorlar mi almiyorlar mi `was I taking?' `was I not taking?' Singular 1 aliyor muydum almiyor muydum 2 aliyor muydun almiyor muydun Plural 3 aliyorlar miydi almiyorlar miydi (aliyor muydular) (almiyor muydular) `am/was I said to be `am/was I said not to be taking?' taking?' Singular 1 aliyor muymuSum almiyor muymuSum 2 aliyor muymuSsun almiyor muymuSsun Plural 3 aliyorlar miymiS almiyorlar miymiS (aliyor muymuSlar) (almiyor muymuSlar) 19. Present II. The base of this tense is the locative case of the infinitive in -mek, to which are added the endings of the verb `to be': gelmekte-y-:m `I am (in the act of) coming'; almakta- sin `you are (in the act of) taking'; gelmekte-yd:m `I was (in the act of) coming'; g0zlemekte-ym:Ss:niz `you are/were said to be (in the act of) observing'; koSmakta-larsa `if they are (in the act of) running', etc. The negative is formed with the negative of `to be' (#12)-- almakta deG:l:m `I am not taking'; almakta deG:lsek `if we are not taking', etc. For the interrogative and negative-interroga- tive see ##13-14. This present in -mekte, originally a literary formation, is rapidly invading the spoken language. It differs from the present in -yor in being used only of actions in progress and never of actions envisaged. Very rarely the locative of the verbal noun in -me is similarly used: alma-da-y-im `I am in the act of taking'. Subsequent references to `the present tense' are to be taken as applying to the present I. 20. Future I. The characteristic is -ecek, added directly to consonant-stems: gel-ecek `he will come'; g0r-ecek `he will see'; al-acak `he will take'; bul-acak `he will find'. After vowel-stems a y is inserted: er:-y-ecek `it will melt'; tani-y-acak `he will recognize'. If the final vowel of the stem is e or a,it is narrowed by the following y into : or i : bekle-y-ecek > bekl:yecek he will wait anla-y-acak > anliyacak he will understand 21. Uses of the future. This tense is used, like the English future, to express not only what is going to happen but what the speaker wants to happen: s:gara :Cmekten vazgeCeceks:n `you are going to give up smoking cigarettes'; :ster :stemez bu :S: yapacaksin `like it or not, you are going to do this job'. Also as in English, the third person expresses a confident assumption: S:md: merd:venden Cikan Ahmet olacak literally `the one now coming upstairs will be Ahmet', i.e. `that will be Ahmet coming upstairs now'. The future past, besides expressing past intention--zaten bunu yapacaktim `I was going to do it any- way'--is employed in the apodosis of conditional sentences, both for `I would do it if ...' and `I would have done it if ...'. 22. Paradigms of the future. To the future base are added the `to be' endings, as with the present base, except that the written language regularly uses -d:r in the third person of the future to express a simple future statement and not a supposition. The change of intervocalic k to G must be borne in mind. (a) Future simple: `I shall come' `I shall take' Singular 1 geleceG:m alacaGim 2 geleceks:n alacaksin 3 gelecek(t:r) alacak(tir) Plural 1 geleceG:z alacaGiz 2 geleceks:n:z alacaksiniz 3 gelecekler(d:r) alacaklar(dir) (b) Future past: `I was about to come, `I was about to take, would come' would take' Singular 1 gelecekt:m alacaktim 2 gelecekt:n alacaktin 3 gelecekt: alacakti Plural 1 gelecekt:k alacaktik 2 gelecekt:n:z alacaktiniz 3 geleceklerd: alacaklardi (c) Future conditional: `if I am about to `if I am about to come' take' Singular 1 geleceksem alacaksam 2 geleceksen alacaksan Plural 3 geleceklerse alacaklarsa (gelecekseler) (alacaksalar) cf- #18 (c). (d) Future past conditional: `if I was about to come': Singular 1 gelecek :d:ysem or gelecekt:ysem or gelecekt:mse 2 gelecek :d:ysen gelecekt:ysen gelecekt:nse Plural 3 gelecek :d:yseler gelecekt:yseler geleceklerd:yse (gelecekler :d:yse) So, with the changes due to vowel harmony, alacak :d:ysem or alacaktiysam or alacaktimsa, etc. Cf. #9. (e) Future inferential: `I am/was said to be about to come': Singular 1 gelecek :m:S:m or gelecekm:S:m 2 gelecek :m:Ss:n gelecekm:Ss:n Plural 3 gelecekler :m:S geleceklerm:S (gelecek :m:Sler) (gelecekm:Sler) (f) Future inferential conditional: `if, as they say/said, I am/was about to come': Singular 1 gelecek :m:Ssem or gelecekm:Ssem 2 gelecek :m:Ssen gelecekm:Ssen Plural 3 gelecek :m:Sseler gelecekm:Sseler (gelecekler :m:Sse) (geleceklerm:Sse) (g) Future negative. Compare the present negative in #18- gel-me-y-ecek > gelm:yecek he will not come al-ma-y-acak > almiyacak he will not take The same endings are attached as to the positive base: gelm:- yeceG:m, gelm:yecekt:n:z, gelm:yecek :m:Sseler, etc. (h) Future interrogative and negative-interrogative. These are formed on the same lines as those of the present (#18 (h)), e.g. gelecek m:y:m am I about to come? gelm:yecek m:y:m am I not about to come? gelecek m:yd:m was I about to come? gelm:yecek m:ym:S:m am I said not to be about to come? 23. Future II. The ancient future suffix -es: has a restricted use in the modern language. As a finite verb it occurs only in the base-form, i.e. in the third-person singular, and is employed solely for cursing: :pe gel-es: may he come to the rope k0r ol-asi may he become blind ev-:n yikil-asi may your house be demolished ocak-lari batasi may their hearth sink ense-n kirilasi may your neck be broken geber-es: may he die like a dog kara topraGa may he enter the black earth g:r-es: The negative -me is narrowed by the buffer y before this suffix: g0r-m:-y-es: `may he not see'; ol-mi-y-asi `may he not become'. Provincially, with the inferential forms of `to be' it does not have this optative force but a different development of the original future meaning: cepler:nden paralarini Cal-asi :m:S:m `I am alleged to have stolen their money from their pockets'; karim benden hoSlan-mi-y-asi :m:S `my wife is alleged not to like me'. The future sense may not be readily apparent in these two typical examples. The connexion of thought is suggested by the American use of `I am not about to do it' for `I am not likely to do it, not the sort of person who would do it'. Unless otherwise indicated, subsequent references to `the future tense' apply to the future I. 24. Aorist. This term, borrowed from Greek grammar, means `the braod tense', whoich denotes continuing activity. The charac- teristic is r, added directly to vowel-stems: benze- to resemble benzer he resembles anla- to understand anlar he understands koru- to protect korur he protects de- to say der he says ko- to put kor he puts After consonant-stems, a vowel is added before the r. Original monosyllabic stems add e/a: b:n- to mount b:ner he mounts d0n- to turn d0ner he turns et- to do eder he does yap- to make, do yapar he makes, does sun- to present sunar he presents To this rule there are thirteen exceptions; monosyllabic stems which insert :/U/i/u before the r. It will be noted that all but one of these stems end in l or r: b:l- to know b:l:r gel- to come gel:r ver- to give ver:r g0r- to see g0rUr 0l- to die 0lUr al- to take alir kal- to remain kalir san- to think sanir var- to reach varir bul- to find bulur dur- to stand durur ol- to become, olur be, happen vur- to strike vurur Polysyllabic stems add :/U/i/u : :mren- to covet :mren:r sUpUr- to sweep sUpUrUr aldat- to deceive aldatir konuS- to speak konuSur So too do extensions of monosyllabic stems, even if they are themselves monosyllables: de- to say de-n- to be said den:r it is said ye- to eat ye-n- to be eaten yen:r it is eaten ko- to put ko-n- to be put konur it is put 25. Uses of the aorist. The aorist denotes continuing activity, but to equate, for example, yapar-im with `I do' and yapiyor-um w:th `I am doing' is a misleading oversimplification. Funda- mentally, yaparim means `I am a doer' and according to context it may represent: `I habitually do'; `by and large I am the sort of person who does'; `I am ready, willing, and able to do'; `I shall do'. yapiyorum means: `I have undertaken, and am now engaged in, the job of doing'; `I am doing now'; `I am doing in the future', i.e. `I have the job in hand'. yazarim and yaziyorum may both be translated `I write'. But more specifically: yazarim `I am a writer; in principle I write (though I may not yet have put pen to paper)'. yaziyorum `I am writing now'; `as a matter of fact I do write'; `I write, for example, for four hours every morning' --her sabah d0rt saat yaziyorum--where the broad yazarim would be incongruous with the precise expression of time. For `I love you' the Turk says sen: sev:yorum; if he said sen: sev- erim that would sound far too vague and without immediacy, corresponding rather to `I like you'. The aorist is used in requests: otur-ur musunuz `will you sit down?' The future, oturacak misiniz, means `are you going to sit down?' and the present, oturuyor musunuz, `are you in fact sitting down?' In promises: yarin gel:r-:m `I shall come tomorrow'. This carries more conviction than the present yarin gel:yorum `I am coming tomorrow' or the future yarin geleceG:m `I am going to come tomorrow'. See also #36. In stage directions: Esma g:r-er, otur-ur. Osman yer:nden kalk-ar `Esma enters, sits. Osman rises from his place'. In proverbs: :t Ur-Ur kervan geC-er `the dogs howl, the caravan moves on' As a vivid present: b:r akSam kapi hizla Calin-ir `one evening there is a violent ringing at the door'. The aorist of ol- `to become, happen, be' is used to ask per- mission: ol-ur mu `is it all right?' (lit. `does it happen?'); answer olur `all right' or olmaz `certainly not' (`it does not happen; it's not on'). Note also olur mu b0yle `does it happen thus?' i.e. `can such things be?' An instructive example of the difference between the aorist and the present is seen in this cynical remark on traffic hazards in Turkey: baSka memleketlerde kazara 0lUrler; b:z kazara yaSiyoruz `in other countries they die by accident; we live by accident'. The force of the aorist 0lUrler is `I cannot say con- fidently that anyone abroad is in fact dying at this precise instant, but I am aware that people abroad are liable to die--kazara--as the result of accident'. The present yaSiyoruz means `we are in fact living at this moment but--kazara--it's more by luck than judgement'. 26. Paradigms of the aorist. To the aorist base the `to be' endings are suffixed as to -yor, i.e. without -d:r in the third person of the present. (a) Aorist present: `I come' `I see' `I take' `I find' Singular 1 gel:r:m g0rUrUm alirim bulurum 2 gel:rs:n g0rUrsUn alirsin bulursun 3 gel:r g0rUr alir bulur Plural 1 gel:r:z g0rUrUz aliriz buluruz 2 gel:rs:n:z g0rUrsUnUz alirsiniz bulursunuz 3 gel:rler g0rUrler alirlar bulurlar The common Anatolian -:k instead of -:z in the first-person plural occasionally finds its way into literary works: gel:r:k, g0rUrUk, alirik, buluruk; sometimes with h instead of k, to represent the pronunciation kh (see I, 9, end). (b) Aorist past. Besides translating `I used to do', this tense also occurs in the apodosis of conditional sentences in the sense of `I would do, would have done'. Singular 1 gel:rd:m g0rUrdUm alirdim bulurdum 2 gel:rd:n g0rUrdUn alirdin bulurdun 3 gel:rd: g0rUrdU alirdi bulurdu Plural 1 gel:rd:k g0rUrdUk alirdik bulurduk 2 gel:rd:n:z g0rUrdUnUz alirdiniz bulurdunuz 3 gel:rlerd: g0rUrlerd: alirlardi bulurlardi (gel:rd:ler) (g0rUrdUler) (alirdilar) (bulurdular) The separated forms gel:r :d:m, g0rUr :d:m, etc., are an Armenianism. (c) Aorist present conditional. As the conditional suffixes are subject only to the twofold harmony, two examples are sufficient: g0rUrsem goes like gel:rsem, bulursam like alirsam. `if I come' `if I take' Singular 1 gel:rsem alirsam 2 gel:rsen alirsan 3 gel:rse alirsa Plural 1 gel:rsek alirsak 2 gel:rsen:z alirsaniz 3 gel:rlerse alirlarsa (gel:rseler) (alirsalar) (d) Aorist past conditional: `if I came, used to come', etc. The Past conditional forms of `to be', separate or suffixed, follow the aorist base: Singular 1 gel:r/g0rUr/alir/bulur :d:ysem 2 ,, ,, ,, ,, :d:ysen Plural 3 ,, ,, ,, ,, :d:yseler (gel:rler/g0rUrler/alirlar/bulurlar :d:yse) Singular 1 gel:rd:ysem g0rUrdUysem alirdiysam bulurduysam 2 gel:rd:ysen g0rUrdUysen alirdiysan bulurduysan Plural 3 gel:rd:yseler g0rUrdUyseler alrdiysalar bulurduysalar (gel:rler- (g0rUrler- (alirlar- (bulurlar- d:yse) d:yse) diysa) diysa) (e) Aorist inferential: `I am/was said to come', etc. Singular 1 gel:rm:S:m g0rUrmUSUm alirmiSim bulurmuSum 2 gel:rm:Ss:n g0rUrmUSsUn ahrmiSsin bulurmuSsun Plural 3 gel:rlerm:S g0rUrlerm:S alirlarmiS bulurlarmiS (gel:rm:Sler) (g0rUrmUSler) (alirmiSlar) (bulurmuSlar) (f) Aorist inferential conditional: `if I am/was said to come', etc, Singular 1 gel:r/g0rUr/alir/bulur :m:Ssem 2 ,, ,, ,, ,, :m:Ssen Plural 3 ,, ,, ,, ,, :m:Sseler (gel:rler/g0rUrler/alirlar/bulurlar :m:Sse) Singular 1 gel:rm:Ssem g0rUrmUSsem alirmiSsam bulurmuSsam 2 gel:rm:Ssen g0rUrmUSsen alirmiSsan bulurmuSsan Plural 3 gel:r- g0rUr- alir- bulur- m:Sseler mUSseler miSsalar muSsalar (gel:rler- (g0rUrler- (alirlar- (bulurlar- m:Sse) m:Sse) miSsa) miSsa) (g) Negative. The aorist is unique in that its negative is not formed by inserting -me before the characteristic r of the positive; instead, the negative has a characteristic of its own, -mez, and this is abraded to -me in the first persons. Further, whereas in other negative bases it is the syllable before the -me that is accented, in the negative of the aorist the -me or -mez itself is accented except in the third-person plural, where the accent is on the -ler. As -mez is subject to the twofold harmony, two examples are sufficient. `I do not come' `I do not take' Singular 1 gelmem almam 2 gelmezs:n almazsin 3 gelmez almaz Plural 1 gelmey:z almayiz 2 gelmezs:n:z almazsiniz 3 gelmezler almazlar An older form of the first-person plural was in -mezUk instead of -mey:z. It survives in :stemezUk `we don't want (it)', used to typify opposition to progress. The other tenses and moods are formed like their positive counterparts but on the base -mez/maz, e.g. Aorist past negative: `I used not to come/take, would not come/take': Singular 1 gelmezd:m almazdim 2 gelmezd:n almazdin Plural 3 gelmezlerd: almazlardi (gelmezd:ler) (almazdilar) (h) Interrogative. The interrogative and negative-interrogative conjugations follow the usual pattern: gel:r m:y:m do I come? alir miyim do I take? gelmez m:y:m do I not almaz miyim do I not take? come? gel:r m:yd:m used I to alir miydim used I to come? take? etc. etc. The negative-interrogative is used colloquially as a vivid pre- sent: terb:yes:z her:f ayaGima basmaz mi `the mannerless fellow goes and steps on my foot', lit. `does he not step on ...?' i.e. `is he the sort of man who would not step on ... ?', a rhetorical question expecting the answer `no'. 27. m:S-past. This base is formed by adding -m:S to the stem: gelm:S, g0rmUS, almiS, bulmuS. Two distinct functions are combined in it. (a) As a finite verb, with the Type I endings (excluding -d:r), it conveys that the information it gives is based either on hearsay or on inference from observed facts, but not on the speaker's having seen the action take place. If you say kar yaGmiS `snow has fallen', it means either that someone has told you so or that you have seen the ground covered with snow, but not that you actually saw the snow falling. So Corabim kaCmiS `my stocking has laddered'; i.e. the speaker infers this from the look of her stocking but did not notice it happening. In this respect the m:S-past resembles the inferential of the verb `to be', except that (i) whereas :m:S refers to past or present time, the m:S-past is exclusively a past tense; (ii) :m:S mostly conveys that the informa- tion given is based on hearsay, less often that it is based on inference; (iii) -m:S is accented when it ends a word, whereas :m:S, like all other parts of the verb `to be', is enclitic. (b) This base is also a past participle, with no inferential con- notation; see IX, 5. There is no inferential connotation, i.e. the base is a past participle, when it is conjugated with -d:r or with the past or conditional forms of the verb `to be'. The addition of -d:r to the base makes a definite past tense: gelm:St:r `he came, has come'; this is the normal past tense, third person, in written narrative, for which the spoken language employs the past tense in -d:. Thus with the Type I endings the following distinction can be made: (a) Inferential past: `I gather that I have come', etc. Singular 1 gelm:S:m g0rmUSUm almiSim bulmuSum 2 gelm:Ss:n g0rmUSsUn almiSsin bulmuSsun 3 gelm:S g0rmUS almiS bulmuS Plural 1 gelm:S:z g0rmUSUz almiSiz bulmuSuz 2 gelm:Ss:n:z g0rmUSsUnUz almiSsiniz bulmuSsunuz 3 gelm:Sler gormuSler almiSlar bulmuSlar As with :m:S, the Ss of the second person is frequently reduced to S in speech and sometimes in informal writing. (b) Definite past: `he came, has come; they came, have come', etc. (third person only): Singular 3 gelm:St:r g0rmUStUr almiStir bulmuStur Plural 3 gelm:Slerd:r g0rmUSlerd:r almiSlardir bulmuSlardir (gelm:St:r- (g0rmUStUr- (almiStir- (bulmuStur- ler) ler) lar) lar) 28. Pluperfect. The addition of the Type II endings makes the pluperfect; gelm:S-t:m literally means `I-was having-come'. `I had come' `I had seen' `I had taken' `I had found' Singular 1 gelm:St:m g0rmUStUm almiStim bulmuStum 2 gelm:St:n g0rmUStUn almiStin bulmuStun Plural 3 gelm:Slerd: g0rmUSlerd: almiSlardi bulmuSlardi (gelm:St:ler) (g0rmUStUler) (almiStilar) (bulmuStular) The pluperfect is used more frequently than its English counter- part to show that one past event preceded another, e.g. Sehre saat 10 da varmiStik, bUrosuna saat 3 te g:tt:k `we arrived in the city at 10 and went to his office at 3'. 29. Other paradigms of the m:S-past. (a) Conditional: literally `if-I-am having-come', etc. `if I have `if I have `if I have `if I have come' seen' taken' found' Singular 1 gelm:Ssem g0rmUSsem almiSsam bulmuSsam 2 gelm:Ssen g0rmUSsen almiSsan bulmuSsan plural 3 gelm:Slerse g0rmUSlerse almiSlarsa bulmuSlarsa (gelm:Sseler) (g0rmUSseler) (almiSsalar) (bulmuSsalar) (b) Pluperfect conditional: `if I had come', etc. The independent :d:ysem, etc. (#9) is put after the base: Singular 1 gelm:S/g0rmUS/almiS/bulmuS :d:ysem 2 ,, ,, ,, ,, :d:ysen Plural 3 ,, ,, ,, ,, :d:yseler (gelm:Sler/g0rmUSler/almiSlar/bulmuSlar :d:yse) The one-word forms gelm:St:ysem, etc., are not literary. [MISSING LINE?] is followed by the inferential of `to be'; see #10. In this tense, for reasons of euphony, the independent :m:S:m, etc., are used very much more often than the suffixed forms. It must be empha- sized that the inferential element here comes from the :m:S and not from the base, which in this tense, as in the pluperfect and conditional, functions simply as a past participle. Thus gelm:S :m:S or gelm:Sm:S means literally `he-is-said-to-be having- come', just as gelm:St: means `he-was having-come' and gel- m:Sse `if-he-is having-come'. Singular 1 gelm:S/g0rmUS/almiS/bulmuS :m:S:m 2 ,, ,, ,, ,, :m:Ss:n Plural 3 ,, ,, ,, ,, :m:Sler (gelm:Sler/g0rmUSler/almiSlar/bulmuSlar :m:S) Singular 1 gelm:S- g0rmUS- almiS- bulmuS- m:S:m mUSUm miSim muSum 2 gelm:S- g0rmUS- almiS- bulmuS- m:Ss:n mUSsUn miSsin muSsun Plural 3 gelm:S- g0rmUS- almiS- bulmuS- lerm:S lerm:S larmiS larmiS (gelm:S- (g0rmUS- (almiS- (bulmuS- m:Sler) mUSler) miSlar) muSlar) (d) Inferential conditional: `if I am said to have come', etc. Here again the separate :m:Ssem, etc., are commoner than the suffixed forms. Singular 1 gelm:S/g0rmUS/almiS/bulmuS :m:Ssem 2 ,, ,, ,, ,, :m:Ssen Plural 3 ,, ,, ,, ,, :m:Sseler (gelm:Sler/g0rmUSler/almiSlar/bulmuSlar :m:Sse) The rare suffixed forms are like the m:S-past conditional (see (a) of this section) but with -m:Sm:S, etc., replacing -m:S. (e) Negative. -me is added after the stem: gelmem:S, g0r- mem:S, almamiS, bulmamiS. To this negative base the same endings are attached as to the positive base, except that as the negative -me is subject only to the twofold harmony the suffixes following it appear only in two forms: gelmem:S:m, bulma- miSim `I gather that I have not come/found'; gelmem:Slerd:r, bulmamiSlardir `they have not come/found'; gelmem:St:k, bulmamiStik `we had not come/found'; gelmem:S :m:S:m, bulmamiS :m:S:m `I am said not to have come/found'. (f) Interrogative. This and the interrogative-negative are as usual, with m: preceding the personal endings except -ler, which it follows: gelm:S m:yd:k `had we come?'; gelmem:S m:yd:k `had we not come?'; g0rmUS :m:Sler m: `are they said to have seen?'; almamiS :m:Sler m: `are they said not to have taken?' 30. Necessitative. The characteristic is -mel:, which may be used impersonally: gelmel: `one ought to come'; almali `one ought to take'. It may also be conjugated with the present, past, and inferential of `to be', but not with the conditional; see (f) below. In origin it is the verbal noun suffix -me with -l: (IV, 5). (a) Present: `I ought to come', `I ought to take': Singular 1 gelmel:y:m almaliyim 2 gelmel:s:n almalisin 3 gelmel:(d:r) almali(dir) Plural 1 gelmel:y:z almaliyiz 2 gelmel:s:n:z almalisiniz 3 gelmel:(d:r)ler almali(dir)lar (b) Past: `I had to come, `I had to take, should have come' should have taken' Singular 1 gelmel: :d:m almali :d:m 2 gelmel: :d:n almali :d:n Plural 3 gelmel: :d:ler almali :d:ler Singular 1 gelmel:yd:m almaliydim 2 gelmel:yd:n almaliydin Plural 3 gelmel:yd:ler almaliydilar (gelmel:lerd:) (almalilardi) (c) Inferential: `they say/said I ought to ...'. The separate gelmel: :m:S:m, almali :m:S:m is rare. Singular 1 gelmel:ym:S:m almaliymiSim 2 gelmel:ym:Ss:n almaliymiSsin Plural 3 gelmel:ym:Sler almaliymiSlar (gelmel:lerm:S) (almalilarmiS) (d) Negative. The negative base, gel-me-mel:, al-ma-mali, like the positive base, is used impersonally, `one ought not to come/take', as well as with the present, past, and inferential endings: gel-me-mel:-s:n:z `you ought not to come'; gel-me- mel:-yd:k `we ought not to have come', gel-me-mel:-ym:S- s:n:z `they say/said you ought not to come'. (e) Interrogative: gelmel: m: `should one come?' or `should he come?'; gelmel: m:yd:n:z `should you have come?'; gelme- mel: m:yd:k `should we not have come?' etc. (f) Conditional. In place of the conditional forms of the neces- sitative, a periphrasis is used, with the conditional forms of the verbs gerekmek or :cabetmek `to be necessary', or, particularly for the present conditional, the adjectives la=zim or gerek `necessary' and the conditional forms of `to be', following the -me verbal noun of the required verb with the appropriate personal suffix: gelme-m gerek:rse ,, :cabederse if I ought to come (lit `if my-coming ,, la=zim-sa is necessary') ,, gerek-se gelme-m:z gerekt:yse if we had to come (lit. `if our-coming ,, :cabett:yse was necessary') The future necessitative is expressed by a similar periphrasis: gelme-s: gerekecek `he will have to come' (`his-coming will- be-necessary')- 31. d:-past. This tense corresponds to both the English simple past and perfect with `have'. Its characteristic is -d: (-t: after unvoiced consonants), to which are added the Type II endings. `I came, `I saw, `I did, `I found, have come' have seen' have done' have found' Singular 1 geld:m g0rdUm yaptim buldum 2 geld:n g0rdUn yaptin buldun 3 geld: g0rdU yapti buldu Plural 1 geld:k g0rdUk yaptik bulduk 2 geld:n:z g0rdUnUz yaptiniz buldunuz 3 geld:ler g0rdUler yaptilar buldular 32. Uses of the d:-past. 'This is the tense used in speech when relating past events positively known to the speaker. If one has witnessed the arrival of a tourist-ship, one may report the event in the words b:r tur:st vapuru geld:. The newspapers will say b:r tur:st vapuru gelm:St:r, although in the headline they will use the synonymous but shorter geld:. Someone who has learned of the event from an eyewitness or from the newspapers will report it as b:r tur:st vapuru gelm:S. 33. Other paradigms of the d:-past. (a) Pluperfect. From the d:-past two pluperfect tenses are made, on the pattern of the two past conditionals of the verb `to be'; see #9. The first is commoner than the second, but not so common as the pluperfect in -m:S-t: (#28). `I had come' `I had seen' Singular 1 geld:yd:m or geld:md: g0rdUydUm or g0rdUmdU 2 geld:yd:n geld:nd: g0rdUydUn g0rdUndU 3 geld:yd: g0rdUydU Plural 1 geld:yd:k geld:kt: g0rdUydUk g0rdUktU 2 geld:yd:n:z geld:n:zd: g0rdUydUnUz g0rdUnUzdU 3 geld:yd:ler geld:lerd: g0rdUydUler g0rdUlerd: `I had done' `I had found' Singular 1 yaptiydim or yaptimdi bulduydum or buldumdu 2 yaptiydin yaptindi bulduydun buldundu 3 yaptiydi bulduydu Plural 1 yaptiydik yaptikti bulduyduk bulduktu 2 yaptiydiniz yaptinizdi bulduydunuz buldunuzdu 3 yaptiydilar yaptilardi bulduydular buldulardi (b) Conditional. As in the d:-pluperfect, there are two possible forms, the first being more frequent. Only the conjugation of stems with rounded vowels has been shown; for the conjugation of geld:ysem/geld:mse and yaptiysam/yaptimsa, cf. #9. `if I saw, have seen' `if I found, have found' Singular 1 g0rdUysem or g0rdUmse bulduysam or buldumsa 2 g0rdUysen g0rdUnse bulduysan buldunsa 3 g0rdUyse bulduysa Plural 1 g0rdUysek g0rdUkse bulduysak bulduksa 2 g0rdUysen:z g0rdUnUzse bulduysaniz buldunuzsa 3 g0rdUyseler g0rdUlerse bulduysalar buldularsa (c) Pluperfect conditional. The separate :d:ysem, etc., and not the suffixed forms are used. `if I had come' Singular 1 geld: :d:ysem or geld:m :d:yse 2 geld: :d:ysen geld:n :d:yse Plural 3 geld: :d:yseler geld:ler :d:yse (d) Negative. The same endings are attached to the negative stem: gelmed:m `I have not come', almadiniz `you did not take', yapmadiydik or yapmadikti `we had not done', g0r- med:yse `if he has not seen', bulmadi :d:yseler `if they had not found', etc. (e) Interrogative. As the d:-past is conjugated with the Type II endings and not the present of `to be', the interrogative particle follows the whole word: geld:m m:? `did I come?'; yaptiniz mi? `did you do?'; g0rdUk mU? `did we see?'; buldular mi? `did they find?', etc. There are alternative forms for the interrogative of the plu- perfect: `had I come?' Singular 1 geld: m:yd:m or geld:m m:yd: 2 geld: m:yd:n geld:n m:yd: 3 geld: m:yd: Plural 1 geld: m:yd:k geld:k m:yd: 2 geld: m:yd:n:z geld:n:z m:yd: 3 geld: m:yd:ler geld:ler m:yd: Negative-interrogative: gelmed:m m:? `did I not come?'; yapmadiniz mi? `did you not do?'; g0rmed:k m:? `did we not see?'; bulmadilar mi? `did they not find?'; gelmed: m:yd:m? or gelmed:m m:yd:? `had I not come?', etc. 34. Conditional. As we have seen, the various bases so far examined, except -mel:, have conditional moods, formed by adding the conditional of `to be': (i) To the base: gel:yorsam if I am coming geleceksem if I am going to come gel:rsem if I come gelmiSsem if I have come geld:ysem if I came, have come (ii) To the past or inferential forms of `to be' added to the base: gel:yorduysam if I was coming gel:yormuSsam if I am/was said to be coming gelecekt:ysem if I was going to come etc. In addition, every verb has its own conditional base, the characteristic being -se, which expresses (a) remote condition: gelse `if he were to come'; (b) wish: gelse! `if only he would come !' As with the conditional of `to be', the Type II endings are used. (a) Conditional present: `if I were to come', `if I were to take': Singular 1 gelsem alsam 2 gelsen alsan 3 gelse alsa Plural 1 gelsek alsak 2 gelsen:z alsaniz 3 gelseler alsalar (b) Conditional past. With the past endings of `to be', the con- ditional base expresses (a) unfulfilled conditions: gelseyd: `had he come'; (b) hopeless wishes relating to past time: gelseyd:! `if only he had come!' This must be carefully distinguished from the d:-past conditional: past conditional: gel-d:-:se > geld:yse `if he came' conditional past: gel-se-:d: > gelseyd: `if (only) he had come' Singular 1 gelseyd:m alsaydim 2 gelseyd:n alsaydin 3 gelseyd: alsaydi Plural 1 gelseyd:k alsaydik 2 gelseyd:n:z alsaydiniz 3 gelseyd:ler alsaydilar (gelselerd:) (alsalardi) (c) Conditional inferential. With the inferential endings of `to be', remote conditions and wishes can be quoted: gelseym:S `they say that if he were to come' or `they are saying ``if only he would come !''' Singular 1 gelseym:S:m alsaymiSim 2 gelseym:Ss:n alsaymiSsin 3 gelseym:S alsaymiS Plural 1 gelseym:S:z alsaymiSiz 2 gelseym:Ss:n:z alsaymiSsiniz 3 gelseym:Sler alsaymiSlar (gelselerm:S) (alsalarmiS) The separate forms gelse :m:S:m, etc., are also found. (d) Negative: gelmesem `if I were not to come'; gelmeseyd:m `if only I had not come!'; gelmeseym:S:m `they are saying of me ``if he were not to come'' or ``if only he would not/had not come!''' (e) Interrogative. Besides asking for confirmation of what you think you have heard (cf. #13 end)--gelse m:? ```if he were to come!'' do you say?'--the interrogative of the conditional may express indecision: g:tsem m:? `should I go?' See XX, 10. The interrogative of the conditional inferential has alternative forms: Singular 1 gelse m:ym:S:m or gelsem m:ym:S 2 gelse m:ym:Ss:n gelsen m:ym:S Plural 3 gelse m:ym:Sler gelseler m:ym:S Negative-interrogative: gelmese m:ym:S:m or gelmesem m:ym:S, etc., `are they saying of me ``if only he wouldn't come !''?' 35. Subjunctive. This mood, which some grammarians prefer to call the subjunctive-optative, uses the Type III endings. It is not strictly correct to speak of the third-person singular as the base of this mood, as the elements of the first-person endings are inseparable. Present Singular 1 geley:m alayim 2 geles:n alasin 3 gele ala Plural 1 gelel:m alalim 2 geles:n:z alasiniz 3 geleler alalar The accent is on the last syllable of the first persons and of the third-person plural. The other endings are accented on the -e/a. The endings of the second persons are those of Type I. The final syllable of the first singular, though it looks like the `I am' ending, is not; this is evident from the fact that it is accented, which the `to be' endings never are. Historically, this ending seems to be a hybrid; in the sixteenth century the ending of the first singular of the subjunctive was -ey:n, and of the imperative -eyem. The `I am' ending has, however, doubtless influenced its development. The first is historically part not of the sub- junctive but of the imperative, the old first-plural ending of the subjunctive being -evUz. The Anatolian forms of the first singular and plural sometimes find their way into print; they are in -em and -ek respectively: g:dem `let me go, I'll go'; g:dek or g:deh `let's go'. With vowel-stems, a y is inserted before the Type III endings. This narrows the preceding vowel, but the phonetic change is not invariably reflected in writing. Thus the subjunctive of s0yle- `to tell' and baSla- `to begin' is: Singular 1 s0yl:yey:m baSliyayim 2 s0yl:yes:n baSliyasin 3 s0yl:ye baSliya Plural 1 s0yl:yel:m baSliyalim 2 s0yl:yes:n:z baSliyasiniz 3 s0yl:yeler baSliyalar Note that the y of the first-person ending -ey:m/ayim does not narrow the preceding vowel in writing. In the colloquial, however, the first singular of vowel-stems often loses the stem- vowel and the buffer y; thus s0yl:yey:m, baSliyayim are heard as s0yley:m, baSlayim, while yapayim `let me do' is heard as yap::m or yap:m. 36. Uses of the subjunctive.` The subjunctive expresses concepts envisaged by the subject or the speaker; it makes no statement about facts, except that the first singular is used colloquially with future meaning: yarin geley:m `let me come tomorrow' > `I may come tomorrow' > `I'll come tomorrow'. The first plural means `let us come', etc. The second persons are used in formal speech to relay requests and commands: babam ded: k:, yarin b:ze geles:n:z `my father said that you-should-come to us tomorrow'. The third singular is used colloquially to ask cautious questions-- evde m: ola `might he be at home?'--and in a few set expres- sions: from rasgel- `to chance', rasgele `may it fall out well. good luck!'; kolay gele `may it come easy', a form of greeting used when entering a place where someone is working; geCm:S ola `may it be past', said when hearing of someone's illness. In these last two expressions, however, Istanbul idiom favours the imperative: kolay gels:n, geCm:S olsun. The third plural is virtually obsolete. In subordinate clauses (see Chapter XIX) the third persons are almost invariably replaced nowadays by the third persons of the imperative. 37. Other paradigms of the subjunctive. (a) Subjunctive past. Formed by suffixing to the third-person singular of the subjunctive the past endings of `to be': Singular 1 geleyd:m baSliyaydim 2 geleyd:n baSliyaydin 3 geleyd: baSliyaydi Plural 1 geleyd:k baSliyaydik 2 geleyd:n:z baSliyaydiniz 3 geleyd:ler baSliyaydilar (gelelerd:) (baSliyalardi) It expresses unfulfillable past wishes: `would that I had come/ begun', usually reinforced by keSk: : keSk: bacaGi kirilaydi `would that his leg had broken !' It is also used (i) as an alternative to the conditional past and (ii) as the past tense of the imperative. EXAMPLES: (i) b:leyd:m buraya kadar gelmezd:m `had I known, I would not have come this far'. See, however, Chapter XXI, last paragraph. (ii) s0yl:yeyd:n:z `you should have said'. There is an idiomatic use of the third-person singular imperative of var- `to come' with that of another verb in the negative, e.g. varsin demes:n, lit. `let him come let him not say', which means `he might as well not say; it doesn't matter whether he says or not'. One way of expressing the past tense of this is vara dem:yeyd: `he might as well not have said'. Note the suspended affixation of the -yd:, which belongs both to vara and dem:ye. For alternative way see #40 and XXIV, 31 (the latter positive not negative)- (b) Subjunctive inferential Singular 1 geleym:S:m baSliyaymiSim 2 geleym:Ss:n baSliyaymiSsin 3 geleym:S baSliyaymiS Plural 1 geleym:S:z baSliyaymiSiz 2 geleym:Ss:n:z baSliyaymiSsiniz 3 geleym:Sler baSliyaymiSlar (gelelerm:S) (baSliyalarmiS) These forms, which are not of frequent occurrence, are used to quote the present and past subjunctive--geleym:S `people are/were saying ``would that he had/might come!'''--and as an alternative to the conditional inferential. (c) Negative. The buffer y narrows the -me/ma to -m:/mi: gelm:ye, baSlamiya, gelm:yeyd:m, baSlamiyaymiS, etc. YI+K recommends that this change should not be shown in writing. (d) Interrogative. The particle m: follows the endings of the present. In practice, only the first persons are likely to be en- countered: geley:m m:, gelel:m m: `should I/we come?'; gelm:yey:m m:, gelm:yel:m m: `should I/we not come?' The interrogative of the past is not in use. The interrogative of the inferential is rare, as one might expect from its meaning: `do/did they say ``would that he might come !''?' Singular 1 gele m:ym:S:m baSliya miymiSim 2 gele m:ym:Ss:n baSliya miymiSsin Plural 3 gele m:ym:Sler baSliya miymiSlar (geleler m:ym:S) (baSliyalar miymiS) 38. Synopsis of the verb. The accompanying table shows the first-person singular of all tenses and moods of gelmek `to come' except the imperative (for which see the next section), the present II (#19), and the future II (#23). The participles and verbal nouns are also shown. See also the periphrastic tenses and moods in IX,11. The Roman numerals in the table refer to the types of personal endings set out in #15, which for convenience are repeated beneath the table. The Arabic numerals refer to the relevant sections of the present chapter. The suffixed forms of the verb `to be' have been shown except where literary usage has a strong preference for the separate forms. 39. Imperative. Singular 2 gel g0r al bul 3 gels:n g0rsUn alsin bulsun Plural 2 gel:n g0rUn alin bulun gel:n:z g0rUnUz aliniz bulunuz 3 gels:nler g0rsUnler alsinlar bulsunlar It will be seen that the imperative of the second singular is identical with the stem; cf. the English imperative, which is identical with the infinitive without `to'. Of the second-person plural forms, the longer is the more polite. Care should be taken not to confuse the third-person suffix of this mood with the second-person singular of the Type I endings; if -s:n is added to a stem, it makes the third-singular imperative: gel-s:n `let him come'; if added to a base, it makes the second-singular present: gel-ecek-s:n `you-are about-to-come'; gel-m:S-s:n `you-are having-come'. An ancient suffix of the second person imperative was -g:l : b:lg:l `know!' The interjections hayd: `come on!', aman `mercy!' and destur `mind out of the way!' (dastu**r (P) `permission') are some- times given one or other of the endings of the second-plural imperative when more than one person is being addressed: hayd:n:z, amanin, desturun. In the second-person plural of the imperative, the buffer y does not narrow a preceding vowel: this rule applies to the second- person plural of the positive imperative of vowel-stems and of the negative imperative of all stems. Thus the positive imperative of s0yle- `to tell' and baSla- `to begin' is as follows: Singular 2 s0yle baSla 3 s0yles:n baSlasin Plural 2 s0yley:n baSlayin s0yley:n:z baSlayiniz 3 s0yles:nler baSlasinlar The negative imperative of gel- and bul- : Singular 2 gelme bulma 3 gelmes:n bulmasin Plural 2 gelmey:n bulmayin gelmey:n:z bulmayiniz 3 gelmes:nler bulmasinlar The interrogative: gels:n m: `is he to come?'; s0ylemes:n m: `is he not to tell?' An idiomatic use of the third-person negative interrogative is to state a fact, with an implication of surprise: satici :k: gazete :C:n benden on yer:ne sek:z kuruS almasin mi? `would you believe it, for two newspapers the shopkeeper took eight piastres from me instead of ten' (lit. `is the seller not to take ...?'). cf. #26 (h). Such colloquial imperatives as durundu `hey, stop !' and bakindi `hey, look here !' (accented on the first syllable and used as singular or plural) are compounded of the second-singular imperative--dur, bak--and the adverb :md: `now'. A less likely theory derives them from the second plural--durun, bakin-- and the interjection d: seen in hayd: `come on!' 40. -s:nd:. This ending is the third-person imperative -s:n with the third-person past of the verb `to be': onun g:zl: f:k:rler:n: halk ne b:ls:nd:? `how should the common people know his secret thoughts?' bu yaziya Bakan kizmasin da, k:m kiz- sindi? `who should have been angry at this article, if not the Minister?' (for this form of conditional sentence see XX, 2). Some Turkish grammarians reject this explanation and regard the -d: as identical with the last syllable of hayd:. This is because they will not admit the possibility of a past imperative, on the grounds that the function of the imperative is to give an order and one cannot give an order in the past. This somewhat mechanistic objection can be disposed of if we regard the -d: as putting not the imperatives b:ls:n, kizsin, but the whole sentences into the past. For another example see XXIV, 31. 41. -s:n :C:n. An uncommon method of expressing purpose is to use the postposition :C:n after the third-person imperative, as in bu g0mleG: ona g:ys:n :C:n verd:m `I gave him this shirt for him to wear', where g:ys:n d:ye (XI, 2) would be more normal. For an example where it has clearly been used to avoid the repetition of d:ye, see XXIV. 25. 42. -d:r suffixed to finite verbs. As we have seen in #4, -d:r indicates supposition or, less commonly, emphasis when used as a third-person copula. It may also be suffixed to verbs (except the d:-past, conditional, subjunctive, and imperative) in any person, including the first and second persons of the verb `to be'. In such situations it generally does not so much emphasize the verb as weaken it, the implication being that the speaker is stating as a fact something of which he has no positive knowledge but only a strong feeling or impression: Cocuk g:b:-y-:m-d:r ya ... elbette Cocuk g:b:-y-:m `I-really-think-I-am-like a child, you know ... indeed I am like a child'. Here the speaker begins by stating his feeling and then, his conviction becoming firmer, he states it as a fact. Sa:r-:m I am a poet Sa:r-:m-d:r I am surely a poet, I think I must be a poet S::r yaziyorum I am writing poetry S::r yaziyorum-dur surely I am writing poetry! or why, I must be writing poetry! b:l:yorsunuz you know b:l:yorsunuzdur you surely know, I presume you know uyu-muS-um I gather that I have slept uyu-muS-um-dur I must have slept oku-muS-sunuz you have read, I gather oku-muS-sunuz-dur you are bound to have read I+ng:l:z pol:s:n:n meth:n: hep:m:z duy-muS-uz-dur we have all certainly heard the praises of the English police It must be remembered, however, that the addition of -d:r to the third person of the m:S-past makes a definite past tense (#27), while its addition to the third person of the future I makes a definite future (#22). Note the differences between the three possible ways of trans- lating `I have written him a letter': ona b:r mektup yazdim ona b:r mektup yazmiSim ona b:r mektup yazmiSimdir The first is a statement of fact; I remember writing the letter. The second is an inference; I do not remember writing the letter, but I have found the carbon copy in my file. The third, which might be translated `I must have written ...', suggests that I do not remember writing, nor have I any evidence that I wrote, but after all it is over three months since I received his letter and I presume I must have done something about it. The nuances in the three possible ways of saying `my friend is waiting for me' should also be noted: arkadaSim ben: bekl:yor arkadaSim ben: bekl:yormuS arkadaSim ben: bekl:yordur The first states a fact; I can see him there at the corner. The second is based on hearsay; someone has seen him waiting and told me so. The third is a supposition--`I'm sure he is waiting'-- based on the knowledge that my friend is always punctual, that he said he would wait from five o'clock, and that it is now five past five. The context shows when -d:r has the emphasizing function: CocuGa anlatin, mutlaka :la=ci :Cmel:d:r `explain to the child, he really must drink the medicine'; babanin s0zUnden Cikmi- yacaksinizdir, deG:l m:? 'it-is-a-fact-that-you-will-not-depart from your father's word, is it not?' i.e. `you will positively not disobey your father, will you?' 43. -d:r with a following verb. b:r kiyamet-t:r koptu, literally `it is a resurrection broke out', may be translated `all hell broke loose'. In such sentences, in which the noun is always preceded by b:r, the -d:r is the main verb, with the following verb subordi- nate. This is a vivid form of expression drawing attention to a sudden startling event or a remarkable state of affairs, the latter when the second verb is g:t-, denoting continuity (XI, 35 (g)). sol kulaGima b:r tokat-tir :nd: `such a slap came down on my left ear !' bUtUn gUn evde b:r konuSma b:r patirdi b:r gUrUltU-dUr g:der there is a perpetual talking and scurrying and noise in the house all day long'. Comparable is the colloquial use exemplified in: Adalarda yaz mevs:m: b:r hayat-tir h:C sorma `on the Islands, the summer season is such a marvellous life !' (`is a life don't ask !'). 44. Summary of the forms of `to be'. The following summary of the forms of the verb olmak `to become, be, happen, mature', and of the verb `to be', shows how the former supplements the deficiencies of the latter. -:m I am oluyorum I am becoming, I tend to be olmaktayim I am becoming olacaGim I shall be, shall become olurum I become, shall be :m:S:m I am/was said to be olmuSum I infer that I have become olmaliyim I ought to become, ought to be :d:m I was oldum I became, have become :sem if I a m olsam if I were, if I should become olayim let me be, let me become ol, olun, olunuz be! become! olsun let him be olasi may he be olab:l:r:m I can be, become (#55 (a)) olamam I cannot be, become (#55 (b)) :ken while being olurken while becoming (XI, 34) The stem ol- also supplies the participles and verbal nouns of `to be'. Particularly to be noted is the difference between :d:m and oldum. Here is a pair of examples in the third person: b:r zelzele :d: `it was an earthquake'; b:r zelzele oldu `an earthquake occurred'. 45. var, yok. These words are adjectives meaning respectively `existent' and `non-existent'. They take the place of English `there is/are' and `there is/are not' and of the verb `to have'. k0Sede b:r kahve var `there is a cafe=* on the corner'. bu k0yde postahane var mi? `is there a post-office in this village?' Answer: var `there is' or yok `there is not'. biCak var mi s:zde? `have you a knife on you?' Answer: var `I have' or yok `I have not'. biCaGiniz yok mu? `do you not have a knife?' (`your-knife non-existent?'). Cocuk yet:m deG:l, babasi var `the child is not an orphan, he has a father'. The subject of English `have' is put in the genitive in Turkish: CocuGun babasi var `the child has a father'. This is not an ordinary izafet group; it literally means not `the child's father exists' but `his father exists--the child's'. The distinction may seem slight but has practical consequences; see XVI, 6. :mparatorun elb:ses: yok `the emperor has no clothes'; ben:m SUphem yok `I have no doubt'. The present tense of `to be' and the forms based on :- may be used in conjunction with var and yok: Burada yalniz mi-y-iz? ded:. Hayir, ben de var-im, ded:m ```Are we alone here?'' said he. ``No, I-am-present too'', I said'. ev-:n bahCe-s: var the house has a garden ,, ,, vardi the house had a garden ,, ,, vardir formal: the house has ...; informal: the house surely has ... ,, ,, varsa if the house has ... ,, ,, varmiS the house is said to have ... ,, ,, varken while the house has ... For the negative of all these, var is replaced by yok: yoktu, yoktur, yoksa, yokmuS, yokken. For other verbal forms, i.e. for those missing from the left-hand column in #44, ol- and its negative olma- take the place of var and yok: ev:n bahCes: olacak the house will have a garden ,, ,, olmiyacak the house will not have a garden ,, ,, olsaydi if the house had a garden ,, ,, olmasaydi if the house had no garden ,, ,, olsun let the house have a garden ,, ,, olmasin let the house not have a garden ,, ,, olmali the house ought to have a garden The attributive use of var is confined to such expressions as var kuvvet-:-yle dayandi `he resisted with all his strength' (`with his existent strength') and of yok to yok yere `vainly' (`to non-existent place'). Care is necessary to distinguish vardi < var-:d: from vardi the third-singular d:-past of varmak `to arrive'. As the suffixes of `to be' are enclitic, no confusion is possible in speech; `there was' is va=*rdi, `he arrived' is vardi=*. In writing, the context should obviate ambiguity: k0yde b:r m:saf:r vardi `there was a guest in the village'; k0ye b:r m:saf:r vardi `a guest arrived in the village'. 46. Extended stems. The suffixes treated in the next seven sections are used to make reciprocal, causative, repetitive, re- flexive, and passive verb-stems, to which are added the tense- and mood-endings set out above. 47. The reciprocal or co-operative verb. The addition of -:S- to a consonant- or of -S- to a vowel-stem shows that the action is done by more than one subject, one with another or one to another: anla- to understand anlaS- to understand one another benze- to resemble benzeS- to resemble one another d0v- to beat d0vUS- to fight one another koS- to run koSuS- to make a concerted rush or to run in all directions sev- to love sev:S- to love one another uC- to fly uCuS- to fly about together The precise meaning of such a verb cannot always be deduced logically; thus tutuS-, from tut- `to hold', means not only `to hold each other' and `to hold mutually'--el tutuStular `they held hands'--but also `to catch fire'. yatiS- is not `to lie down together' but `to subside'; yapiS- is not `to do together' but `to adhere'; gel:S- is not `to come together' but `to develop'; kalkiS- is not `to rise together' but `to attempt something beyond one's powers'. A grammar cannot be a substitute for a dictionary. 48. The causative verb. This is formed by adding one or other of the suffixes listed below to the stem, original or reciprocal. (a) -d:r-. This suffix is etymologically and functionally distinct from the suffix meaning `is', but is identical with it in its phonetic metamorphoses (see #3). It is the commonest causative suffix, but is not used with polysyllabic stems ending in a vowel or l or r. don- to freeze (intr.) dondur- to freeze (tr.) d0n- to turn (intr.) d0ndUr- to turn (tr.) :nan- to believe :nandir- to persuade 0l- to die 0ldUr- to kill sev-:S- to love one another sev:St:r- to make to love one another ye- to eat yed:r- to feed The final sentence of the previous section is applicable to this section too; e.g. al-dir- means `to cause to take' but also `to pay attention'; koS-tur- is `to cause to run' but also `to run about in a panic'. See further #51. (b) -:r-. This is used with some twenty monosyllables of which the commonest are: aS- to pass, surpass aSir- to cause to pass over bat- to sink (intr.) batir- to sink (tr.) b:t- to finish (intr.) b:t:r- to finish (tr-) doG- to be born doGur- to give birth to doy- to be satiated doyur- to satiate duy- to feel, hear duyur- to divulge dUS- to fall dUSUr- to make fall, drop geC- to pass (intr.) geC:r- to pass (tr.) g0C- to migrate g0CUr- to cause to migrate :C- to drink :C:r- to make drink kaC- to escape kaCir- to let escape, lose p:S- to cook (intr.) p:S:r- to cook (tr.) S:S- to swell (intr.) S:S:r- to inflate taS- to overflow taSir- to make overflow yat- to lie down yatir- to lay down, deposit (c) -t- is used with polysyllabic stems ending in a vowel or l or r: anla- to understand anlat- to explain bekle- to wait beklet - to keep waiting dUzel- to be put in order dUzelt- to arrange kUCUl- to become small kUCUlt- to belittle otur- to sit oturt- to seat s0yle- to speak s0ylet- to make speak (d) -:t- is used after a few monosyllabic stems, mostly ending in k, e.g.: ak- to flow akit- to shed kok- to smell (intr.) kokut- to make smell kork- to fear korkut- to frighten sap- to deviate sapit- to send astray sark- to lean down sarkit- to suspend Urk- to start with fear UrkUt- to startle (e) -er- occurs only in these words: Cik- to go out, go up Cikar- to remove, raise C0k- to collapse C0ker- to cause to collapse, make kneel g:t- to go g:der- to remove kop- to break off, break out kopar- to break off (tr.), (intr.) cause to break out on- to prosper onar- to repair (also ondur- `to improve' (tr.)) (f) Irregular are: em- to suck emz:r- to suckle (also emd:r- `to cause (e.g. a pump) to suck') gel- to come get:r- to bring g0r- to see, perform (a g0ster- to show (also g0rdUr- duty, task, etc.) `to make perform') kalk- to rise kaldir- to raise, remove 49. Doubly causative verbs. The causative -t- may be suffixed to -d:r-, -:r-, and -er-; the causative -d:r- may be suffixed to -t- and -:t-, sometimes with no change of meaning. Thus from de- `to say' the causative `to make say' is ded:r- or ded:rt-; from kon- `to settle', kondur- or kondurt-. More often, however, both suffixes have their full value: 0l- to die 0ldUr- to kill 0ldUrt- to have someone killed p:S- to cook (intr.) p:S:r- to cook (tr.) p:S:rt- to get something cooked Causatives of the third and fourth degree are theoretically possible but are rarely if ever found outside the pages of grammar- books, e.g. 0l-dUr-t-tUr-t- `to get someone to get someone to get someone to make someone die', i.e. to kill through the agency of three intermediaries. 50. Syntax of the causative. When a transitive verb is made causative, the object of the basic verb remains in the accusative, while the object of the causative element of the verb is put in the dative: mektub-u :mzala-dim `I signed the letter'; mektub-u mUdUr-e :mzala-t-tim `I got the director to sign the letter' (`to-the-director I-was-the-cause-of-signing'). salon-un duvar- lar-i-n-i boya-y-acaktim `I was going to paint the walls of the drawing-room'; salonun duvarlarini b:r amele-y-e boya- t-acaktim `I was going to get a workman to paint', etc. When the object of the causative element is not expressed, English idiom usually demands a passive participle: mektubu :mzalattim `I got the letter signed'; salonun duvarlarini boyatacaktim `I was going to have the walls of the drawing- room painted'. When an intransitive verb is made causative, the subject of the basic verb becomes the object: rak:b-: 0l-dU `his rival died'; rak:b-:-n-: 0l-dUr-dU `he killed his rival'. This causative verb, having an object, can now be treated like any other transitive verb: rak:b:n: k:ralik b:r kaat:l-e 0l-dUr-t-tU `he got a hired murderer to kill his rival' (`to a hired murderer he-was-the- cause-of-making-die his-rival'). Cocuk doG-du `the child was born'; anne, CocuG-u doG-ur-du `the mother bore the child'; ebe, anne-y-e CocuG-u doG-ur-t-tu `the midwife helped the mother to bear the child'; ebe, anne-y-: doG-ur-t-tu `the mid- wife brought the mother to birth'. When an originally transitive verb is made doubly causative, the second intermediary may be expressed with the help of vasita (A) `means', or tavassut (A) or the neologism aracilik `mediation': mektub-u mUdUr-e ka=t:b-:n vasitas:yle/tavas- sut:yle/araciliG:yle :mzala-t-tir-dim `through the agency of the secretary, I got the director to sign the letter'. The second intermediary need not be mentioned: mektubu mUdUre :mza- lattirdim `I got someone to get the director to sign the letter'. Verbs construed with the dative retain the dative when they are made causative, the object of the causative element being put in the accusative: s0z-Um-Un doGru-luG-u-n-a :nan-ir misiniz? `do you believe in the truth of my statement?'; s0zUmUn doGru- luGuna s:z-: nasil :nan-dir-ayim? `how am I to make you believe in the truth of my statement?'. Cocuk, okul-a baSla-di `the child started school'; CocuG-u okul-a baSla-t-tik `we made the child start school'. herkes kend:s:-n-e acin-iyor `everyone is sorry for him'; herkes-: kend:s:ne acin-dir-iyor `he is making everyone sorry for him'. The causative means not only `to make someone do something' but also, voluntarily or involuntarily, `to let someone do something': orman-lar-imiz-i keC:-ler-e ye-d:r-:yor-uz `we are letting the goats eat our forests'. para-m-i tramvay-da Cal-dir-miS- im `I have had my money stolen on the tram'. tren-: kaC-ir-dik `we missed the train' (`we let the train escape')- The negative of the causative is commonly used for `not to permit': b:z: s0yle-t-me-d:ler `they did not let us speak'. 51. The repetitive verb. (a) Stems extended by the suffixes -(:)S- and -t:r- are not necessarily reciprocal and causative. In the following verbs the ending -(:)St:r- conveys repeated and intensive action: ara- to seek araStir- to research, investigate at- to throw atiStir- to gobble up Cek- to pull Cek:St:r- to slander serp- to sprinkle serp:St:r- to scatter about sor- to ask soruStur- to make inquiries sUr- to smear sUrUStUr- to put on make-up tak- to attach takiStir- to dress up ver- to give ver:St:r- to be abusive For additional emphasis the simple verb may be used before the repetitive verb: tak takiStir, sUr sUrUStUr (imperative second sing.) `doll yourself up in your best clothes and put on your full war-paint'. (b) -(e)kle- can no longer be regarded as a live suffix (with the reservation that the language reformers may at any time decide to resurrect it) but is found in a small number of verbs, e.g.: dUrt- to prod dUrtUkle- to keep prodding :t- to push :tekle- to manhandle sUr- to drive sUrUkle- to drag uyu- to sleep uyukla- to keep dozing off (c) -ele- is even rarer: SaS- to be bewildered SaSala- to be bewildered gev- (obsolete) to chew gevele- to chew over, beat about the bush [MISSING LINE(S)?][THIS LOOKS LIKE THE REFLEXIVE] [AND #52 IS MISSING] bul- to find bulun- to find oneself, be d0v- to beat d0vUn- to beat one's breast g:y- to put on, wear g:y:n- to dress oneself sal- to throw salin- to oscillate s0yle- to speak s0ylen- to grumble to oneself yika- to wash yikan- to wash oneself Like the `middle voice' of ancient Greek, this suffix denotes action done not only to oneself but also for oneself: et- to do ed:n- to acquire geC- to pass geC:n- to make a living, get along kaC- to run away kaCin- to abstain kalk- to rise kalkin- to progress, recover yap- to make yapin- to make for one- self or to have (e.g. a suit) made Both senses may occur in the same verb: aran-, from ara- `to seek', means `to search one's mind' and `to seek something for oneself': araniyorsun `you're asking for it !' (i.e. a good hiding). taSin-, from taSi- `to carry', means both `to turn things over in one's mind' and `to move oneself, move house'. As with verbs in -:St:r-, the meaning of the reflexive is not always guessable: e.g. g0r-Un- is not `to see oneself' but `to seem, to appear'; sev-:n- is not `to love oneself' but `to rejoice'. 53. The passive verb. This is formed by adding -:l- after all consonants except l : sev-:l- `to be loved'; g0r-Ul- `to be seen'; yap-il- `to be made'; tut-ul- `to be held'. Stems in l or a vowel form their passive identically with the reflexive: al- to take, buy al-in- to be taken, bought oku- to read oku-n- to be read kapa- to shut kapa-n- to be shut Thus, for example, s0ylen- is both the reflexive and the pas- sive of s0yle- and means either `to grumble' or `to be spoken'; yikan- is either `to wash oneself' or `to be washed'. In cases where ambiguity might arise, the passive can be indicated by adding -:l- to the -(:)n, or the reflexive can be shown by using the reflexive pronoun (V, 4): CocuGu yikadi `she washed the child'; Cocuk yika-n-di `the child washed himself or was washed'; Cocuk yika-n-il-di `the child was washed'; Cocuk kend: kend:n: yika-di `the child washed himself'. Just as some verbs take a doubly causative suffix for no obvious reason, so some take a doubly passive suffix; e.g. the passive of de- `to say' is de-n-:l- as well as de-n-. The passive of anla- `to understand' is irregular: anla-S-il- `to be understood'. 54. Uses of the passive. It is not used as much as its English equivalent for the sake of elegant variation; e.g. instead of `he was rebuked by his father', a Turk is more likely to say `his father rebuked him'. Another difference from English idiom is that when baSla- `to begin' is construed with a passive verb it is put in the passive itself: bu :S-: yap-ma-y-a baSliyorlar `they are beginning to do this job'; bu :S yap-il-ma-y-a baSla-n-iyor `this job is beginning to be done' (`is-being-begun to-be-done')- But the most remarkable feature of the Turkish passive is its impersonal use: n:C:n yalan s0yle-n-:r? `why are lies told?', i.e. `why do people tell lies?' In this example the passive verb appears to have a subject, but impersonal passives are also regularly formed from intransitive verbs and then have no conceivable grammatical subject; indeed, the example bu ... baSlaniyor above may be explained under this head. bahS:s at-in d:S-:-n-e bak-il-maz `one does not look at the teeth of a gift horse' (`looking-is-not-done to the tooth ...'). o zamanlar Karak0y'- den Harb:ye'ye taks: :le :k: l:ra-y-a g:d-:l-:r-d: `in those days, one used to go from K. to H. by taxi for two liras'. g:d:l:rd: is the aorist past passive, lit. `going-used-to-be-done'; cf. Virgil's sic itur ad astra `thus does one go to the stars' yildizlara b0yle g:d:l:r. The sentence bu :la=C-la k:mse :y: olmaz `with this medicine no one becomes well' may be expressed impersonally thus: bu :la=Cla :y: ol-un-maz, using the aorist present negative passive of ol-; `becoming-is-not-done'. yerl:-ler-le Cabuk arkadaS ol-un-ur `one quickly becomes friends with the natives'. This passive of ol- is used to form the passive of verbs com- pounded of et- `to do' and a verbal noun (see #57) and is com- moner in this use than the passive of et-: onu tenk:t ed:yorlar `they are criticizing him'; tenk:t olunuyor or tenk:t ed:l:yor `he is being criticized'. 55. The potential verb. This might, on grounds of structure, have been treated together with compound verbs such as ol-a-gel- and gel-:-ver- (see XI, 35) but is singled out here because of its great frequency and its anomalous negative. (a) The positive is formed by adding the appropriate part of b:l- `to know' to the required stem, original or extended, plus -e/a (with the usual buffer y after vowel-stems): gel-:r-:m `I come'; gel-e-b:l-:r-:m `I can come'. gel-d:-yse `if he came'; gel-e-b:l-d:-yse `if he was able to come'. anli-y-acak-miS-im `I gather that I shall understand'; anli-y-a-b:l-ecek-m:S-:m `I gather that I shall be able to understand'. The verb in the next example is the aorist present interrogative of the potential passive of ol-, used impersonally: hak:katen bedbaht ol-un-a-b:l-:r m:? `is it possible to be truly unhappy?' (b) The negative, i.e. the impotential, is formed by adding to the stem the suffix -eme/ama, the first vowel of which is accented and the second may be narrowed to :/i by a following y. This was originally the negative of a now obsolete verb umak `to be power- ful, able'. gel-me-mek `not to come', gel-eme-mek `to be unable to come'; anla-ma-mak `not to understand', anli-y- ama-mak `to be unable to understand'. The aorist of the im- potential is conjugated like the aorist negative, its base being not -eme-r but -emez. It will be seen that the impotential of any verb-form can be made by inserting e/a before the negative suffix: gelmed: `he did not come'; gelemed: `he could not come'. anlamiyor `he does not understand'; anliyamiyor `he cannot understand'. b:lmezler `they do not know'; b:lemezler `they cannot know'. (c) The positive potential endings may be attached to a negative or even to an impotential stem: gel-m:-y-eb:l-:r-:m `I am able not to come', i.e. `I may not come' or `I don't have to come if I don't want to'. gel-em:-y-eb:l-:r-:m `I am able to be unable to come', i.e. `I may be unable to come'. 56. The order of extensions. The order in which the extensions to the stem are placed is as follows: 1. reflexive 2. reciprocal 3. causative 4. passive Examples of verbs containing both reflexive and reciprocal suffixes are hard to find; one such, a product of the language reform, is dayaniS- `to practise mutual aid', made up thus: simple: daya- to prop up -reflexive: daya-n- to prop oneself up -reciprocal: daya-n-iS- to engage with other people in propping oneself up We may continue the extensions to show the full possibilities of the verb: -causative: daya-n-iS-tir- to make to practise mutual aid -passive: daya-n-iS-tir-il- to be made to practise mutual aid The only departures from this order are apparent rather than real; i.e. the reciprocal suffix can follow the passive or causative suffix but only in the case of pseudo-passive or pseudo-causative verbs, that is, verbs which look like passives or causatives but whose original simple stems have gone out of use, e.g.: daGil- 'to disperse'; daGil-iS- `to disperse all in different directions'. seG:rt- `to hasten'; seG:rd-:S- `to hasten together'. Examples of the normal order: simple aci- to feel pain reflexive aci-n- to feel pain in oneself, to grieve causative aci-n-dir- to make grieve passive aci-n-dir-il- to be made to grieve simple tani- to know reciprocal tani-S- to know one another causative tani-S-tir- to make to know one another, introduce passive tani-S-tir-il- to be introduced to one another simple :n- to descend causative :n-d:r- to bring down passive :n-d:r-:l- to be brought down To summarize, the `extended stem' is the simple stem plus any or all of these four extensions, in this order: reflexive, reciprocal, causative, passive. Less commonly, `reflexive' and `causative' may be replaced by `repetitive'. To the extended stem, as to the simple stem, may be added any one of the following options: (a) negative -me- (b) potential -eb:l- (c) impotential -eme- (d) negative-potential -m:yeb:l- (e) impotential-potential -em:yeb:l- Then comes the tense and/or mood characteristic and finally the personal suffix, which, if Type I, may be preceded by the inter- rogative particle (the Type II endings are followed by the in- terrogative particle). Using the stem daya-, all four extensions, option (e), the future characteristic, the interrogative particle, the inferential suffix and the Type I ending of the first-person plural, we arrive at: dayaniStirilamiyab:lecek m:ym:S:z? `is it said that we may not be able to be made to practise mutual aid?' This example, though a little contrived, would not strike a Turk as unnatural. The three following examples are all taken from recent writings (the third from an article on anti-aircraft defences): acindirilmadik `we were not made to grieve' (stem aci-- reflexive- causative- passive-negative-first-person plural of d:-past). taniStirilamadiysaniz `if you were not able to be introduced' (stem tani--reciprocal- causative- passive-im- potential-second-person plural of d:-past conditional). :nd:r- :lem:yeb:lecekler `it may be that they will not be able to be brought down' (stem :n--causative-passive-impotential- potential-third-person plural of future). 57. Auxiliary verbs. (a) etmek. There is a handful of verbal phrases consisting of a Turkish noun and the verb etmek `to do', on the pattern of the English 'to do honour to', e.g. yardim etmek `to help'; alay etmek `to mock'. These served as the model for a vast number of phrases in which the first element was an Arabic verbal noun: kabul acceptance kabul etmek to accept mukayese comparison mukayese etmek to compare :spat proof :spat etmek to prove teSk:l formation teSk:l etmek to form The same device is used nowadays to make verbs from foreign words, especially French past participles: de=*sinfecte=* dezenfekte etmek to disinfect isole=* :zole etmek to isolate, insulate adapte=: adapte etmek to adapt organize=* organ:ze etmek to organize knock-out nakavt etmek to knock out (in boxing) Nouns whose final syllable is subject to any of the changes described in I, 16, 17 (c), 19 are usually written as one word with etmek, especially if they are monosyllables: af forgiveness affetmek to forgive f:k:r thought f:kretmek to ponder tehy:C excitement tehy:cetmek to excite Exceptional is haketmek 'to deserve', with a single k although it is from hak, acc. hakki (I, 16, last paragraph); hakketmek `to engrave' is regular, < @akk (A). (b) eylemek, formerly an elegant alternative to etmek, is now little used except (i) to avoid the constant repetition of etmek; (ii) in Allah rahmet eyles:n and Mevla= rahmet eyleye `God have mercy '; (iii) in the stereotyped expression ne etsen:z ne eylesen:z `whatever you do, in spite of all your efforts' (for the syntax see XX, 7). (c) kilmak was anciently another alternative to etmek, but as an auxiliary verb it now occurs regularly only in namaz kilmak `to perform the rites of Muslim prayer' and takla kilmak `to do a somersault', though in this latter phrase it is often replaced by atmak `to throw'. It is still fairly common in the sense of `to make someone something', as in muharebe har:c-: kilmak `to render hors de combat' (`to make war-outside') and mecbur kilmak `to oblige' (`to make compelled'), with the dative of the -me verbal noun: ben: bunu yap-ma-y-a mecbur kildilar (or ett:ler) `they have obliged me to do this'. (d) buyurmak properly means `to order' and was used in courtly speech as a substitute for other verbs, including etmek and eylemek, the underlying theory being that exalted persons do not perform any task themselves but simply command; thus `he forgave me' would be ben: affett: or ben: affeyled: if the forgiver were an ordinary man, but ben: af buyurdular (note the courtly plural) if he were the Sultan. Nowadays, ne buyurdunuz `what did you say?' is mostly used ironically, but the imperative buyurun is regularly used to mean `deign', in making courteous requests. It may be construed with an accusative when it stands for `take', or with a dative when it stands for `enter': buyurun kahve-n:z-: `please take your coffee'; buyurun salon-a `please enter the drawing-room'. (e) yapmak `to make, do', unlike etmek, does not usually make transitive verbal phrases; one exception, officially sanctioned, though disliked by purists, is park yapmak `to park (a car)'. It replaces etmek, however, when a normally transitive verbal phrase is used without an object or when the noun element is defined; i.e. when the noun is really the object of `to do' and is not just part of a compound verb: bu :k: eser-: mukayese ed:yor `he is comparing these two works' but bu :k: eser-:n mukayese-s:-n-: yapiyor `he is making a comparison (`doing the comparison') of these two works'; masraflarimi hesab- ed:yorum `I am calculating my expenses' but hesap yapi- yorum `I am calculating'. (f) The passive and causative forms of etmek, but not of eylemek, are in full use: k0prUyU tam:r ed:yorlar `they are repairing the bridge'; k0prU tam:r ed-:l-:yor `the bridge is being repaired'; k0prUyU tam:r et-t:r-:yorlar `they are having the bridge repaired'; k0prU tam:r et-t:r-:l-:yor `the repair of the bridge is being carried out' (`the bridge is-being-got-repaired')- For the use of ol-un-mak instead of ed-:l-mek see #54, end. Some phrases with etmek make their passive in olmak instead of or as well as in ed:lmek or olunmak. This is easily explicable where the first element is not a noun but an adjective, e.g. in kaybetmek `to lose', the kayb being a corruption of the Arabic gha**'ib `missing', so the passive kaybolmak is literally `to be missing'. Similarly, from mahku=m `condemned' comes mahku=m etmek `to condemn', passive mahku=m olmak or mahku=m ed:lmek. But olmak is also used to make the passive of a number of etmek compounds whose first element is a noun, e.g.: tiraS etmek `to shave'; tiraS olmak `to be shaved, shave oneself'. mahvetmek `to destroy'; mahvolmak `to be de- stroyed'. defetmek `to repel'; defol! `buzz off !' In such phrases, olmak seems to mean `to undergo, be sub- jected to', as in the following examples too: 0ksUrUk olmak to catch a cough t:fo olmak to catch typhoid amel:yat olmak to undergo an operation sUnnet olmak to undergo circumcision :mt:han olmak to sit an examination cehennem ol! get to hell out of it! (g) Any Arabic verbal noun may itself govern an object in the absence of et- : aCiklama-y-i tekrar etmek :stem:yorum `I do not wish to repeat the explanation'; aCiklama-y-i tekrar- dan kaCin-il-miS-tir `repetition of the explanation has been avoided' (`avoidance-has-been-done from-repeating . . . ). Bursa '- yi z:yaret ett:m `I visited Bursa'; Bursa'yi z:yaret:m `my visiting Bursa, my visit to B.' saat-: tahm:n ett:m `I guessed the time'; saat-: tahm:n-e CaliStim `I tried to guess the time': onu teSy: edel:m `let us see him off; onu teSy:e hazirlanalim `let us prepare to see him off'. The Italian borrowing seen in the transitive verbal phrase protesto etmek `to protest against' may similarly take a direct object even in the absence of the auxiliary verb: :SC:ler, lokavt-i protesto ett:ler `the workers protested-against the lockout'; lokavt-i protesto m:t:ng-: :C:n :z:n alindi `permission has been obtained for the meeting of protest-against the lockout'. Note that whereas the i suffixed to lokavt is the mark of the accusative, the : after m:t:ng is the suffix of the third person. The object may be in the dative; e.g. `to attend school' is okul-a devam etmek (`to do continuance to school'): her Cocuk, :lk okula devam-a mecbur-dur `every child is obliged to attend primary school' (`... is compelled to-continuance to...'). IX. PARTICIPLES 1. Present. The present participle is formed by adding -en to the stem, original or extended: gelen `coming'; olan `being, becom- ing'; :nd:r:len `being brought down'; daGiliSan `dispersing'. The usual y is inserted after vowel-stems and narrows the pre- ceding vowel, although this narrowing is not always shown in writing: anla- `to understand', anliyan (anla-y-an) `under- standing'; bekle `to wait', bekl:yen (bekle-y-en) `waiting'. The vowel of the negative -me is similarly treated: anlamiyan (anla-ma-y-an) `not understanding'; olmiyan (ol-ma-y-an) `not being'; beklem:yen (bekle-me-y-en) `not waiting'; gelm:yen (gel-me-y-en) `not coming'. These words function as adjectives or nouns: bekl:yen m:sa- f:rler `the guests who-are-waiting'; bekl:yenler `those who are waiting'; oynamiyan Cocuklar `children who-do-not-play'; oynamiyanlar `those who do not play'. Participles exercise the same governance as the corresponding finite verb; e.g. beklemek is transitive, so its participle governs an accusative: b:z: bekl:yenler `those who are awaiting us'. But baSlamak `to begin' takes a dative, so: bu :S-e baSliyanlar `those who are beginning this job'. The present participle may overlap the very recent past: yen: doG-an Cocuk `new-born child'; yen: aCil-an fabr:ka `newly opened factory'; geC-en hafta `last week'. Such idiomatic uses must not be confused with situations where the present participle has to be translated by an English past tense because the main verb of the sentence is in the past: gUl-en adam Cikarildi `the man who laughed (lit. `the laughing man') was thrown out'. The participle of the present II is -mekte ol-an or -mekte bulun-an. 2. Future I. The participle is identical with the base: olacak `who/which will be'; olmiyacak `who/which will not be'. In formal speech and writing, where the rules of word-order are strictly applied, confusion is unlikely between the future participle used as an attributive adjective and the third person of the future simple tense; an attributive adjective precedes its noun, whereas in formal language the subject precedes its predicate: :y: haber `good news'; haber :y: `the news is good'. gelecek haber `news which will come'; haber gelecek `the news will come'. In informal speech, however, and in the increasingly popular devr:k cUmle school of writing (XV, 3), the subject may follow its predicate: gelecek, haber `it will come, the news'. To avoid ambiguity the future participle is often used together with the present participle of ol- or bulun- `to be'; gelecek olan haber `the news which-is about-to-come'; bu :S: yapacak bulunan amele `the workman who-is going-to-do this job'. The future participle also functions as a noun: gelecek `who/ which will come, the future'; gelecekler `those who will come'; olacak olur `what-is-to-be will-be'. There is a tendency, how- ever, to attach case-endings to olan rather than directly to the future participle, especially in the singular: gelecek olanlarin (rather than gelecekler:n) CoGu akrabamiz `of-those-who-are about-to-come most are our relatives'; bunu okuyacak olana `to-the-one-who-is going-to-read this' (okuyacaGa is theoretically possible but most unlikely). Apart from this sense of `who/which is about to ...', the future participle has a quasi-passive use, as in y:yecek b:r Sey alalim `let us buy something to eat' (`a thing pertaining-to-future-eating'; okuyacak b:r k:tap :st:yorum `I want a book to read'; softalar saldiracak adam ariyor `the bigots are seeking someone to attack' (`man pertaining-to-future-attacking'). The future passive participle of intransitive verbs is used impersonally in the same way: otur-ul-mi-y-acak b:r ev `a house not to be lived in' (`pertaining-to-future-living's-not-being-done'). This use of the active and the impersonal passive future participle is possible only when the participle is attributive, never when it is predicative, whereas the future passive participle of transitive verbs can be used either way: Attributive: (a) active: okuyacak b:r k:tap `a book to read'; (b) transitive passive: oku-n-acak b:r k:tap `a book which will be read'; (c) intransitive passive (impersonal): SaSilacak b:r Sey `a thing at which surprise will be shown'. Predicative: transitive passive: bu k:tap oku-n-acak `this book will be read, is to be read'. The active participle cannot be used predicatively in the quasi- passive sense: bu k:tap okuyacak could only mean `this book will read' and not `this book is one to read'. Nor can the im- personal passive participle be used predicatively: one can say bu evde oturulacak `living-will-be-done in this house, one will live in this house', where oturulacak is a finite verb, but not bu ev oturulacak. In this sense of `pertaining-to-future-doing', the future par- ticiple may be followed by the postposition kadar, e.g. :st:hsal, :ht:yaClara yet:Sm:yecek kadar az-dir `production is in- adequate to meet requirements', lit. `is small the amount pertain- ing to future sufficing for needs'. Here the future participle might be thought to be an ordinary `which will not suffice', but such an explanation cannot be applied to d0nem:yecek kadar yUrU- mUStUk `we had walked too far to turn back'; lit. `amount pertaining to future inability to turn', not `the amount which will not be able to turn'. Cocuk, okula g:decek kadar bUyUktUr `the child is big enough to go to school' (`the amount pertaining to future going - - -'). Cocuk, okula g:dem:yecek kadar kUCUktUr `the child is too small to go to school' (`the amount pertaining to future inability to go ...'). Several future participles have become common nouns, e.g.: g:y- to put on g:yecek garment Cek- to pull Cekecek shoe-horn oy- to drill a hole oyacak drill yak- to burn yakacak fuel ye- to eat y:yecek food The future participle of ol- often has the ironic sense of `who is supposed to be, so-called': damad-im olacak o kumarbaz `that gambler who is supposed to be my son-in-law'; d:SC: olacak o kasap `that butcher who calls himself a dentist'. The present participle of `to be' is not used after the future partiple in this use, so damadim olacak olan kumarbaz can only mean `the gambler who is going to be my son-in-law'. This sense is sometimes found in the future participle of other verbs: gUvenl:k saGliyacak :nsanlar `the people who-are- supposed-to-ensure security'. See also XX, 9. 3. Future II. The restricted future base -es: may be used as an adjective: k0r olasi her:f `the damned scoundrel' (`the may-he- become-blind scoundrel'); can-i Cikasi kari `the accursed woman' (`the may-her-soul-come-out woman'); ad-i batasi ka=f:r `the abhorred infidel'. In the colloquial it may occur in non-pejorative contexts, e.g. SaSilasi b:r Sey is a sub-standard variant for SaSilacak b:r Sey `an astonishing thing'. As a noun: k0r olasi bunu yapti mi? `has the damned-one done this?'; cani Cikasi-nin p:C-: geld: `the accursed-one's bastard has come'. The suffix -ce may be added without altering the meaning: k0r olasica, cani Cikasicanin. 4. Aorist. The aorist participles, positive and negative, are identical with the respective bases: Finite verb Participle su akar water flows akar su flowing water su akmaz water does not akmaz su stagnant water flow Sa:r 0lmez the poet does 0lmez Sa:r the immortal not die poet Some aorist participles have become or are becoming common nouns: yaz-ar writer oku-r yaz-ar literate (`reader-writer') dUSUn-Ur thinker Cik-ar profit, advantage (`what comes out') Cikmaz impasse (short for Cikmaz yol `road which does not come out') gel-:r revenue (`what comes') kes-er adze (`cutter') All these can be fully declined: yazar-in `the writer's; okur yazarlar `literates'; Cikmaz-dan `from the impasse', etc. But aorist participles which usage has not fixed as nouns are not unusually declined. For example, `he is unreasonable' is s0z anla- maz, lit. `he does not understand words'. If we wish to use this expression to translate `those who are unreasonable' we cannot simply add the plural suffix, since s0z anlamazlar would naturally be taken as the third-person plural of the finite verb, `they are unreasonable'. Instead, we either add a noun, e.g. adam `man' or k:S: `person', or use the present participle of anla-ma-, or of ol- following anlamaz: s0z anlamaz adamlar s0z anlamaz k:S:ler s0z anlamiyanlar s0z anlamaz olanlar 5. m:S-past. The participle is identical in form with the base but has none of the inferential sense of the m:S-past: pla=n hazirla- n-miS `I gather that the plan has been prepared'; hazirlanmiS pla=n `the plan which has been prepared'. Like the future par- ticiple in -ecek, it is often used in conjunction with the present participle of `to be': gelm:S olan/bulunan arkadaSlar `the friends who have come'. So, for example, `of those who have sat down' may be translated: oturmuSlarin oturmuS olarlarin oturmuS bulunanlarin The following phrase contains the m:S-past, present II, and future I participles of oku- `to read, study': Avrupa'da okumuS, okumakta ve okuyacak olan genCler `young people who have studied, are in process of studying, and will study in Europe'. 6. d:-past. The participle is identical in form not with the base but with the first-person plural, -d:k. It appears mostly in frozen forms, of which these are the commonest: b:ld:k acquaintance tanidik ,, dUSUnUlmed:k unthought-of :S:t:lmed:k unheard-of ded:k said g0rUlmed:k extraordinary (`unseen') olmadik unprecedented (`not-having-happened') umulmadik unlooked-for beklenmed:k unexpected okumadik unread okunmadik yaratik creature yapilmadik not done It will be observed that most of these are negative and that b:ld:k, tanidik, okumadik, ded:k, and yaratik, though active in form, are passive in meaning. This is because the past participle in -d:k really means not `having done' but `characterized by past doing'. So the active okumadik `characterized-by-not-reading' comes to be synonymous with the passive okunmadik `charac- terized-by-not-being-read'. The action may be present as well as past, or begun in the past and still continuing; the same ambiguity occurs in the English passive participle: compare `things done nowadays' with `things done fifty years ago'. Apart from the frozen forms listed above, any verb may appear in the negative with -d:k in sentences of the type of `I have left no stone unturned': okumadik gazete kalmadi `no newspaper is left unread' (`newspaper characterized-by-not-reading has-not- remained'); aramadik b:r yer komadim `I have left no place unsearched'; sUrmed:k kara birakmadilar `they have left no evil imputation unmade' (`they-have-not-left black characterized- by-not-smearing'). Care must be taken to distinguish this par- ticiple from the first-person plural of the d:-past, as in gezmed:k memleket birakmadik `we have left no country unvisited'. 7. The personal participles. Of paramount syntactic importance are the forms made by adding a personal suffix to the participles in -d:k and -ecek. b:r tanidik `an acquaintance' is literally `a characterized-by-knowing'; the addition of a personal suffix shows on whose part the knowing was or is, and the resulting word can be used as an adjective or noun: thus b:r tanidiGim is `an acquaintance of mine' and tanidiklarim `my acquaintances'; tanidiGim b:r adam `a man I know' (`a man characterized-by- my-knowing'); tanidiGim adamlar `the men I know'. Similarly, as okuyacak means `pertaining to future reading', okuyacaGim means `pertaining to my future reading', `which I shall read', while the plural okuyacaklarim means `things which I shall read'. When the personal suffix is that of the third person, it may stand in izafet with a qualifier or possessor. The personal participle is used: (a) As an adjective. okuyacaGim k:tap `the book which I shall read'; kardeS-:m-:n bekled:G: m:saf:r `the guest whom my brother is/was awaiting' (`pertaining to my brother's awaiting'); TUrk:ye'ye geld:G:n:z uCak `the aircraft in which you come/ came to Turkey'; doGduGu Seh:r `the city in which she was born'; oturacaGimiz ev `the house in which we are going to live'; konuSacaklari meseleler `the problems which they are going to discuss'; sevg:, saygi duyduGumuz b:r meslektaS `a colleague for whom we feel affection, respect' (`pertaining-to- our-feeling affection ...'); kiz-in oynamadiGi bebek `the doll with which the girl is/was not playing'; mUcevherler:n CalindiGi oda `the room from which the jewels were stolen'; bunu aldiGim f:ata satarim `I shall sell this for the price at which I bought ', It will be seen that from the point of view of the English translation these examples fall into two classes: those in which the noun qualified by the personal participle is translated as the direct object of the verb; and those in which the translation requires the insertion of a preposition before the relative pronoun (`in which, for whom, with which, from which, at which'). The device employed to distinguish between past and present time, when the context is insufficient guide, is exemplified in; dUn yaptiGim ve bugUn yapmakta olduGum :Sler `the jobs which I did yesterday and am doing today' (`pertaining-to-my- doing yesterday and pertaining-to-my-being in-the-act-of-doing today'). (b) As a noun meaning `that which I do', etc. Avrupa'da g0rdUkler:m `the things I saw in Europe'; s:ze b:r d:yeceG:m yok `I have nothing to say to you' (`to-you a thing-of-my-future- saying is-not'); Beatles'ler:n her yaptiGi I+ng:ltere'de moda oluyor `everything the Beatles do is becoming the fashion in England': her `every' qualifies the noun yaptiGi `thing of their doing'; halk b:z:m :nanmadiGimiza :nanab:l:r `the people may believe that which we do not believe': :nan- is construed with a dative; :nanmadiGimiz means `that pertaining to our not believing'. olduGundan bUyUk g0rUnUr `it seems bigger than it is' (`... than-that-of-its-being'). In the following phrase the adjectival and nominal uses are exemplified by baktiGi and sevd:G:n: respectively: her baktiGi kadinda sevd:G:n: g0ren Sa:r `the poet who sees his beloved in every woman he looks at' (`seeing in every woman pertaining- to-his-looking the-one-pertaining-to-his-loving'). (c) As a noun meaning `(the fact of) my doing', etc.: bugUn g:deceG:m SUphel: `it is doubtful whether I shall go today' (`my-future-going is doubtful'); I+stanbul'a geld:G:m:n d0r- dUncU gUnUydU `it was the fourth day after my arrival in Istanbul' (`... of-my-coming to-Istanbul'); b:r part: kur- duGunuz, :sm:n:n de TUrk:ye Adalet Part:s: olduGu doGru mu? `is it true that you have founded a party and that its name is the Justice Party of Turkey?' (`your-founding ... and its-name's being ... is true?'); hazir bulunduGuna g0re `in view of its being ready' (lit. `according to-the-fact-of-its-being ready'). Cf. olduGuna g0re in XXIV, 18. The third-singular personal participle of the ancient er- `to be' survives in the phrase ne :dUGU bel:rs:z `of doubtful antecedents' (`his-being what, unclear, it being unclear what he is'; for the syntax see XVIII, 1), sometimes modernized to ne olduGu bel:rs:z. 8. -eceG: gel-. The future personal participle is used with gel- `to come', as in n:C:n d:yeceG:m gel:yor `I begin to feel like saying ``why?''', lit. `my-future-saying ``why?'' is-coming'; cf. uykum gel:yor `my-sleep is-coming', i.e. `I feel sleepy'. I+stan- bul'u g0receG:m geld: `I feel like seeing Istanbul' (`my-future- seeing Istanbul has-come')- 9. -es: gel-. The participle of the future II is colloquially used in the same way: n:C:n d:yes:m gel:yor ; I+stanbul'u g0res:m geld:. The third-person suffix, however, is omitted; i.e. -es: may stand for -es:-s: : :nsan-in n:C:n d:yes: gel:yor `one feels like saying ``why?''' (`man's saying why comes'). 10. .eceG: tut-. The future personal participle with tut- `to catch hold': kizini evlend:receG: tuttu `he was suddenly seized with the idea of getting his daughter married', lit. `his-future- causing-to-marry caught-hold'; g:tm:yeceG:m tuttu `I suddenly feel like not going', lit. `my-future-not-going has-caught-hold')- 11. Periphrastic tenses and moods. The verb ol- is used with the bases of the present I, the future I, and the m:S-past, to give a greater suppleness to the tense-system. gel:yor olmalilar `they must be coming'; bakacak olursaniz `if you will look' (`if-you-are about-to-look'); gelm:S olacaGiz `we shall have come'; toplanti- niza :St:rak edemem:S olmaktan mUteess:r:m `I regret not having been able to take part in your meeting' (`I-am-regretful from- being having-been-unable-to-do participation'); unutmuS olma- yin `I hope you have not forgotten' (`do-not-be having-forgotten'). With the aorist participles, ol- gives an inchoative sense: bunu yapar oldu `he started to do this' (`became doing'); bunu yap- maz oldu `he stopped doing this' (`became not-doing'); bunu yapamaz oldu `he became incapable of doing this'; bu tekl:f: kabul etmez olur muyum h:C, lit. `do I ever become not- accepting this suggestion?', i.e. `am I ever likely not to accept ... ?' The use of the future, aorist, and m:S-past bases in such peri- phrases is readily understandable, as these bases are the participles of their respective tenses. The reason for the use of the present base is not so obvious. The fact that in origin it is itself an aorist (VIII, 16) may be the explanation. The use of deG:l `not' instead of or as well as the negative verb also makes possible the expression of a number of shades of meaning: bu tehl:ke sez:lm:yor deG:l `this danger is not un- perceived'; bunu yapacak deG:l:m `I do not intend to do this'; bunu b:lmez deG:l:m `I am not unaware of this' (`I-am-not not-knowing'); b:r net:ceye varmiS deG:l:m `I don't claim to have reached a conclusion' (`I-am-not having-reached'); bunu anlamamiS deG:l:m `I have not failed to understand this' (`I-am-not having-not-understood'); zor kullanmadi deG:l, kullandi `it's not that he didn't use force; he did' (`force he-did- not-use not, he-used'); ben, yazinizi okudum deG:l, g0rme- d:m b:le `I have not read your article; I haven't even seen '; ben, yazinizi okudum deGil, ezberled:m `I have not read your article; I have learned (it) by heart'. X. VERBAL NOUNS 1. Introductory. The principal suffixes which make verbal nouns are: -mek, -mekl:k, -me, and -:S. Primarily, -mek denotes pure undefined action, -mekl:k the fact of action, -me the action or result of action, -:S the manner of action; there is, how- ever, a certain blurring of the boundaries of their functions. 2. -mek. This is usually termed the suffix of the infinitive (cf. VIII, 1). It has two peculiarities of accidence: it never takes the personal suffixes or the suffix of the genitive case (see p. 173, Addendum). The other cases are in full use: Absolute: (a) As subject: bunu b:lmek ka=f:d:r `to know this is sufficient'; esk:den kopmak kolay :S deG:l `to break away from the old is no easy task'. (b) As object of :stemek `to want' and b:lmek `to know': CaliSmak :st:yor `he wants to work'; susmak b:lmez `he does not know to keep quiet'. (c) As qualifier in izafet groups: yazmak arzu-su `the desire to write'; konuSmak n:yet-: `the intention to speak'; eGlenmek :ht:yac-i `the need to amuse oneself'. (d) As object of the postpositions :C:n and Uzere: dUnyayi deG:St:rmek :C:n ne la=zim? `in order to change the world, what is necessary?' This is the usual way of expressing purpose. Uzere `on, on the basis of' is similarly used: CarSiya g:tmek Uzere otobUse b:nd: `she got on the bus to go to the market'. It also translates `on condition of, on the understanding that': yarin ger: vermek Uzere bana on l:ra ver:r m:s:n:z? `will you give me ten liras on the understanding that I give it back tomorrow?' (`on-the-basis-of to-give back')- olmak Uzere, lit. `on-the-basis-of to-be', may sometimes be translated by `being' or `as being' but can often be left un- translated: bu mektepte on beS ayri m:llet-:n, ekser:s: albay olmak Uzere, yUksek rUtbel: subay-i okumaktadir `in this school, high-ranking officers of fifteen different nations are studying the majority of them being colonels'; alti-si kiz, d0rd- U erkek olmak Uzere, on talebe-m var `I have ten pupils, six- of-them girls, four-of-them boys'. -mek followed by Uzere and part of the verb `to be' means `to be on the point of': tren, hareket etmek Uzere-yd: `the train was on the point of starting'. Accusative as object of verbs other than :ste- and b:l- : evlen- meG-: dUSUnUyorlar `they are contemplating getting-married'; ay-da :k: yUz l:ra vermeG-: taahhUt eder `he undertakes to pay 200 liras a month' (`in-the-month'); devletten yardim g-0rmeG-: umuyoruz `we are hoping to receive help from the State'; atlamaG-i nasil becerecekt:? `how would he manage to jump?'; ekmek almaG-i unuttu `he forgot to buy bread'. In front-vowel verbs, the accusatives of -mek and the verbal noun in -me (#7) are phonetically identical: g:tmeG-:, g:tme- y-:. In back-vowel verbs, the accusative and dative of -mak are phonetically identical, almaG-i and almaG-a both being pro- nounced alma**. Consequently, the accusative of -mek/mak is rapidly being supplanted in writing, as it has long been in speech, by the accusative of -me/ma ; in all the examples in the preceding paragraph -meG:/maGi can be replaced by -mey:/mayi. Dative: yUrUmeG-e baSladik `we began to walk'; :sted:G:n: yapmaG-a aliSiktir `she is accustomed to-doing what-she- wants'; borcumu 0demeG-e geld:m `I have come to-pay my debt'; s:gara almaG-a g:tt: `he has gone to buy cigarettes'. Here too -meye/maya is taking the place of -meGe/maGa, though for the expression of purpose, as in the last two examples, -meGe/maGa seems to be holding its own in the written language for the moment. Locative: bunu yapmak-ta be:s g0rmed: `he saw no harm in-doing this'. The locative of -me can replace that of -mek in such a sentence, but not so frequently in the present II tense g:tmektey:m, etc. Ablative: hak:kat-: yazmak-tan kend:m: alamamiStim `I had-not-been-able-to-restrain myself from-writing the-truth'; pol:s-e haber vermek-ten baSka Carem:z yok 'we have no remedy other than-to-give information to-the-police'; a=r Cekmek- ten ba=r Cekmek evla=dir `to-bear burdens is-better than-to-bear shame'. See also -mektense, XI, 30. 3. The infinitive with subject. In the older language, the infinitive in -mek could regularly have a subject: sen b0yle za'm U p:ndar sah:b-: olmak nedend:r `why are you so puffed up and conceited?' (lit. `you to-be possessor of such pretension and conceit is-from-what?'). Modern usage replaces sen olmak `you to be' by sen:n olma-n `your being'. The old usage survives, however: (a) In proverbial expressions: b0yle oGul olmaktan olmamak yeGd:r `better no son than such a son' (`than such a son to be, not-to-be is-better'). (b) In dictionary definitions: bulaSmak : b:r nesne, Uzer:ne sUrUlen b:r Sey yUzUnden k:rlenmek `to be defiled: a thing to be dirtied because of something smeared on it', where nesne is the subject of the infinitive k:rlenmek. (c) In headlines: Nurculuk aleyh:nde konuSan b:r mUftU susturulmak :stend: `it was desired that a mufti who spoke against the Nurcu doctrine should be silenced'; the subject of :stend: `was wanted' is b:r mUftU susturulmak ` a mufti to be silenced'. The text of the story avoids giving the infinitive a subject by making the verb active: 200 k:S:l:k b:r grup, mUftUyU susturmak :stem:St:r `a 200-person group wanted to silence the mufti'. It may be noted, incidentally, that whereas the text employs the past tense in -m:St:r, the headline has the synonymous but shorter -d:. (d) Rarely in other contexts, e.g. parasi Calinmak mi k0tU, Harpagon olmak mi? `is it worse to have one's money stolen or to be a miser?', lit. `his-money to-be-stolen is bad? to be a miser?' 4. -mekl:. The adjectival suffix -l: is occasionally added to the infinitive, as in :nsan aGlamakli oluyor vallah: `honestly, one feels like crying' (`man becomes characterized-by-weeping, by- Allah')- On the other hand, -s:z `without' is not added to -mek, -s:z:n being used instead; see XI, 31. 5. Common nouns in -mek. In contrast to the many common nouns which are in origin -me verbal nouns, very few -mek infinitives have acquired concrete meaning: yemek `food' (as an infinitive, `to eat'); Cakmak `cigarette-lighter' (`to strike'); tok- mak `door-knocker' (from the obsolete infinitive tokimak `to knock'). The noun ekmek `bread' and the infinitive ekmek `to sow' are not etymologically connected. 6. -mekl:k. Unlike the bare -mek, -mekl:k can take personal suffixes and all case-endings. It is nothing like so frequent as -me, but is rather more precise in its sense of `the act of doing'; it also has one advantage over -me, namely that -me with the first-singular personal suffix--g:t-me-m `my going'--is indis- tinguishable in spelling and pronunciation from the first-singular negative of the aorist present tense--g:t-mem `I do not go'; any possible ambiguity can be eliminated by using g:tmekl:G:m for the former. Thus g:tmem la=zim mi? `is my-going necessary, must I go?' might, if we ignore punctuation, be read as `I'm not going; must I?', whereas there is no such ambiguity about g:t- mekl:G:m la=zim mi? 7. -me. Verbal nouns formed with this suffix, unlike those in -mek, appear in every case and with the personal suffixes. In the absolute case they are identical in writing with the negative of the second-person singular imperative, but differ in accentua- tion: gelme=* coming ge=*lme do not come yapma=* doing ya=*pma do not do In the dative the buffer y narrows the preceding vowel: sor- m:ya ne lUzum vardir? `what need is there for-asking?' han- Ceres:n: yirtan hiCkiriklari d:nd:rm:ye uGraSiyordu `she was striving to still the sobs which tore her throat': sormiya < sor-ma-y-a; d:nd:rm:ye < d:nd:r-me-y-e, though the un- narrowed spellings are more frequent in writing. The -me and not the -mek forms are used in phrases like `waiting-room, reading-book, working-hours': bekleme salon-u, okuma k:tab-i, CaliSma saatler-:, since, for example, bekle- mek means the undefined concept of waiting, whereas what goes on in a waiting-room is bekleme, the act of waiting. The -me forms are therefore used in indirect commands: bu yaziyi okuma-m-i s0yled: `he told me to read this article' (`he-stated my-action-of-reading'); see XVII, 1. Forms like tanimamama in the following sentence can be confusing when first encountered: yaptiGim hatayi memleket: tanimamama vereb:l:rs:n:z `you may ascribe the mistake I made to-my-not-knowing the country'. The word is built up thus: stem tani--negative -ma-verbal noun -ma-`my' -m- dative -a. If the negative is replaced by the impotential -ama we get taniyamamama `to my inability to know'. The English verbal noun may have active or passive meaning; compare `the singing of the choir' with `the singing of the song'. Turkish can make passive verbal nouns by adding -me to the passive stem: bu a=let-: kullan-ma-si `his-using this instru- ment'; bu a=let-:n kullan-il-ma-si `the use (``the being-used'') of this instrument'. Although phrases like bunun yapmasi kolay `the doing of this is easy' do occur, the passive bunun yapilmasi kolay is more usual. 8. Common nouns in -me. The sense of `result of action' appears in the use of a great many -me verbal nouns as common nouns, e.g.: as- to hang asma vine devS:r- to levy devS:rme levy, i.e. recruitment or recruit dol- to be filled dolma stuffed vine- or cabbage-leaf, embankment dondur- to freeze dondurma ice-cream d0n- to turn d0nme convert ez- to crush ezme pure=*e yaz- to write yazma manuscript Many are used as adjectives, e.g.: asma k0prU `suspension- bridge'; asma kat `mezzanine floor'; yazma k:tap `manuscript book'; dolma kalem `fountain-pen'. doG- `to be born', bUyU- `to grow up': doGma bUyUme b:r I+stanbullu `a born and bred Istanbul man'; anadan doGma k0r b:r adam `a man blind from birth' (`from-mother birth blind'). kal- `to remain': baba- dan kalma emla=k `inherited estates' (`from-father remnant'); Osmanli I+mparatorluGundan kalma b:r:s: `someone left over from the Ottoman Empire'. yap- `to make': yapma C:Cekler `artificial flowers'. The passive verbal noun is also possible in this adjectival use: I+ng:l:z kumaSindan yapilma b:r ceket `a jacket made of English cloth'. 9. -mel:. For the specialized function of this ending see VIII, 30. Descriptive adjectives of this form are few, e.g. asmali `having a vine' (Asmali Mesc:t `Mosque of the Vine' is the name of a mahalle, quarter, of Istanbul); aGlamali `tearful'. 10. -masyon. The ending of such French borrowings as organ:- zasyon, adaptasyon, and telekomUn:kasyon is jocularly conflated with the -me verbal nouns of uydur- `to invent' and at- `to boast', giving uydurmasyon `concoction, fabrication' and atmasyon `line-shooting'. 11. -:S. This denotes not only the manner but also the fact of action, e.g. from yUrU- `to walk': bu yUrU-y-US-le kasabaya akSama kadar varmiS olacaGiz `with this way of walking, at this rate, we shall have reached the town by evening'. her gUn b:r saat yUrUyUS yapmalisiniz `you ought to do an hour's walking every day' (b:r saat is adverbial). Note that the English verbal noun `walk' has the same two senses. When this suffix is added to vowel-stems the buffer y does not usually narrow the preceding vowel; thus from anla- `to under- stand', anlayiS; from de- `to say', dey:S. But from ye- `to eat', y:y:S is more common than yey:S, probably because of the cumulative narrowing effect of the two y's: her y:G:d-:n b:r yoGurt y:y:S-: var `every young man has a way-of-eating yoghurt', i.e. everyone has his own way of doing things. The -:S verbal noun can also be made from passive stems: bu ev-:n yap-il-iS-i `the structure of this house' (`way-of-being- made'). A limited number of -:S verbal nouns form adjectives with -l:, e.g.: elver- to be suitable elver:Sl: suitable g0ster- to show g0ster:Sl: ostentatious kullan- to use kullaniSli serviceable yaG- to rain yaGiSli rainy 12. -mezl:k, -memezl:k. The addition of -l:k (IV, g) to the negative aorist base makes a few abstract nouns such as anlaS- mazlik `misunderstanding', saldirmazlik `non-aggression', doymazlik `insatiability'. From this form comes a reduplicated negative in -me-mez-l:k, denoting persistent non-doing, failure to do: pol:t:kacilarin uzaGi g0r-e-memezl:G-: `the short- sightedness of the politicians' (`their-persistent-inability-to-see the-distant'); gelmemezl:k etme, sen: bekler:z `don't fail to come; we expect you'; tat:llerde CaliSmamazlik etme `don't fail to work in the vacation'; ona sela=m vermemezl:k edemez- d:m, CUnkU o bana `merhaba' ded: `I couldn't not greet him, for he said ``hello'' to me'. The ablative, less commonly the dative, of -memezl:k with gelmek `to come', or the dative of -mezl:k with vurmak `to strike', means `to pretend not to': b:lmemezl:kten gelemezs:n:z b:lmemezl:Ge gelemezs:n:z you cannot pretend not to know b:lmezl:Ge vuramazsiniz There is some fluctuation of usage; -memezl:Ge vurmak is used by some speakers of standard Turkish, but -mezl:kten gelmek is a provincialism. Addendum to #2. In transliterated Ottoman texts, forms in -meG:n will be found; this is not the genitive but the instru- mental of -mek. For example, olmaGin means `by being', `be- cause of being', `with being', or `when being'. XI. [MISSING: ADVERBIALS] 1. Introductory, This chapter deals with the many adverbial forms of the verb. The term `gerunds' has been chosen from among the several terms in use, which include `deverbal adverbs', `adverbials', `gerundives', `gerundia', and `converbs', as it has the merit of brevity. Those who are familiar with the gerund in Latin, however, will find little in common between it and most of the forms here described. Indeed, the only point of approach is that one sense of the adverbial form of the verb -erek, `by doing', is like that of the ablative case of the Latin gerund, e.g. faciendo. The forms treated in ##2-12 are made by adding suffixes to verb-stems, with the usual y as buffer where necessary and the usual fluctuation of usage about the narrowing or otherwise of a preceding vowel; e.g. anla- with the suffix -erek may be found spelled as anlayarak or anliyarak. The forms treated in sections ##13-33 are formed from par- ticiples, tense-bases, or verbal nouns. 2. -e. We have already met this suffix in the formation of the potential verb. It occurs also in a few frozen forms, made from the stems geC- `to pass', kal- `to remain', rasgel- `to meet by chance', ortaklaS- `to enter into partnership', sap- `to deviate', de- `to say', and Cal- `to strike, throw'. Cf. g0re, VII, 4. geC-e, kal-a are used to indicate the hour of the clock at which something happens: saat UC-U y:rm: geCe geld: `he came at twenty past three' (`twenty passing hour three'); saat d0rd-e beS kala g:tt: `he went at five to four' (`five remaining to hour four'). The saat may be omitted: UCU y:rm: geCe; d0rde beS kala. kala is also used in expressions of distance like eve b:r k:lometre kala benz:n b:tm:S `a kilometre from home we ran out of petrol' (`to-the-house one kilometre remaining, the petrol finished'). rasgele `haphazardly': rasgele b:r tanes:n: aldim `I took one of them haphazardly, at random'. ortaklaSa `jointly, in common': bUtUn bu serv:sler, Comet 4B jet uCaklariyla ve Olymp:c A:rways :le ortaklaSa yapilir `all these services are carried out with Comet 4B jet aircraft and in conjunction with O.A.' sapa is an adjective meaning `out of the way, off the beaten track'. d:ye `saying': evet d:ye cevap verd: `he answered ``yes''' (`he gave answer saying yes'). Its use has been greatly extended: (a) To saying in writing: yarin gel d:ye b:r telgraf Cekt: `he sent a telegram saying ``come tomorrow'''. GI+RI+LMEZ d:ye b:r levha `a sign saying NO ADMITTANCE''' (note the impersonal passive g:r:lmez, lit. `entering is not done'). (b) To unspoken thoughts: k:m bunu yapti d:ye dUSUnU- yordum `I was wondering who had done this' (`I was thinking, saying ``who has done this?'''). (c) To expressions of purpose and intention: Allah sen: dUnya boS kalmasin d:ye yaratmamiS `God did not create you just to take up room' (`saying ``let the world not remain empty'''). Hence the common interrogative ne d:ye? `with what intention?' (`saying what?'): ne d:ye yemek yem:yorsun? `what's the idea of not eating?'; ne d:ye erken geld:n?--s:z: bekletm:yey:m d:ye `why have you come early?'--`in order not to keep you waiting' (`saying-what have you come early?'-- `saying let me not make you wait'). (d) Colloquially it is used for `named': BeS S+eh:r d:ye b:r k:tap `a book named Five Cities'; L:va d:ye b:r dostum var `I have a friend named Liva'. In formal language, the place of d:ye in these two examples would be taken by adli, :s:ml:, or :sm:nde. (e) In the sense of namina (VII, 7): ehl:yet :mt:hani d:ye b:r Sey yok BelC:ka'da `there is nothing you could call a driving-test in Belgium'. Cala occurs in some compound adverbs, e.g.: Calakalem yazmak `to write busily' (lit. `throwing-pen'); CalakaSik yemek `to gobble greedily' (`throwing-spoon'); CalakUrek aCilmak `to row away at full speed' (`to recede throwing-oar'). These frozen forms apart, the -e gerund does not occur singly; either (a) the -e gerund of one verb is repeated or (b) the -e gerunds of two verbs are used side by side, indicating repeated action contemporaneous with that of the main verb. The accent falls on the first -e of the pair: (a) leylek zipliya zipliya uzaklaSmiSti `the stork had hopped away' (zipla- `to hop'; lit. `the stork hopping hopping had receded'); :nsan belk: d0GUle d0GUle uslanir `perhaps one grows well-behaved with being constantly beaten' (d0GUl- pass:ve of d0G- `to beat'); her kel:me :C:n kalem:n: d0rt beS kere hokkasina batira batira uzun uzun yazdi `dipping his pen into his ink-well four or five times for each word, he wrote at great length' (batir- `to dip', causative of bat- `to sink'). Another example is seen in the formula of farewell: gUle gUle! ` happily!' (gUl- `to laugh'). With phrases formed from a verbal noun and an auxiliary verb, there is no need to repeat the verbal noun; thus from tak:b- etmek `to follow': :zler:n: tak:bede ede yUrUdUk `we walked, following their tracks'. From feth-etmek `to conquer': mem- leketler fethede ede :lerled:ler `they advanced, conquering country after country'. (b) yUrUkler kona g0Ce yaylaya g:tt:ler `the nomads went to the plateau, camping and moving on, camping and moving on' (kon- `to settle', reflexive of ko- `to put'; g0C- `to migrate'); b0yle gelm:S b0yle g:decek dUnyamiz: bozula dUzele, deG:Se gel:Se, yen: esk:y:, esk: yen:y: vura vura `thus our world has come and thus will it go : being-spoilt and put-right, changing and developing, the new constantly- striking the old, the old the new'. Other examples: hopliya zipliya `hopping and skipping'; gUle oyniya `laughing and dancing'; :te kaka `pushing and shoving'; dUSe kalka `falling and rising', i.e. with great difficulty. The repeated -e gerund has an idiomatic use, exemplified in: g:de g:de s:nemaya mi g:tt:n? lit. `going and going was it to the cinema you went?', i.e. with all that going, after all that, couldn't you find anywhere better to go than the cinema? gele gele b:r kUCUk paket geld: `after all that, one little parcel came'. bana da kala kala C:rk:n b:r kadinin karSisinda boS b:r yer kalmiS lit. `and to me, remaining and remaining, an empty place remained opposite an ugly woman', i.e. after all that waiting for a seat, all that was left for me was ... . 3. -erek. Whereas -e -e denotes repeated activity contemporaneous with the main verb, -erek denotes a single act or continued acti- vity contemporaneous with or slightly prior to the main verb.` The first vowel of this suffix is accented, except (a) with negative stems, where, as usual, the syllable before the negative -me is accented, thus b:le=*rek `knowingly' but b:=*lm:yerek `unknowingly'; (b) in o=*larak `being', which has the initial accent usual in adverbs (see #4)- gUlerek cevap verd: `laughingly he answered'; kapiyi aCarak sokaGa firladi `opening the door, he rushed into the street'; g0rmezl:Ge vurarak geCt: `pretending not to see, he passed by'. It often corresponds to the English `by doing' or `with doing': b:r okuyucu bu yaziya dayanarak hataya dUSeb:l:r `a reader, by-relying on this article, may-fall into error'; gecey: konuSarak geC:rd:k `we passed the night with-talking'. As repeated actions can merge into continuous action, the senses of -e -e and -erek overlap to some extent; for `he came running', koSa koSa geld: and koSarak geld: are both possible, and `you did this deliberately' may be bunu b:le b:le yaptin or bunu b:lerek yaptin. In the next example, the main verb is modified by two -erek gerunds, the second of which is itself modified by an -e -e gerund: her yaptiGini bana aCiklayarak, a=letler:n: seve seve kullanarak :k: saat kadar CaliSti `explaining to me everything he did, using his instruments lovingly, he worked for some two hours'. 4. olarak. The -erek form of ol- more often than that of other verbs, has a different subject from the main verb: bu sene :lk defa olarak Amer:ka'ya g:tt:k `this year, for the first time (lit. ` being the first time'), we went to America'. yemek olarak b:r k:lo elma aldim `as food (``being food'') I bought a kilo of apples'. In the next example, the subject of olarak could be `I' or `you' (it is in fact `I'): s:ze b:r dost olarak bunu s0ylUyorum `I am telling you this as a friend'. This word therefore becomes a useful device for creating adverbial phrases: net:ce olarak (`it being the result') `consequently'; kat'i= olarak or kes:n olarak ` definitely'. 5. -:p. Instead of using two verb-stems with identical suffixes side by side or joined by `and', such as kalktik g:tt:k `we rose, we went' or okumaz ve yazamaz `he cannot read and he cannot write', -:p may be added to the first verb-stem: kalk-ip g:tt:k; oku-y-up yaz-a-maz. For `let me go and work in the city', there is no need to say g:dey:m (ve) Seh:rde CaliS-ayim; g:d-:p Seh:rde CaliS-ayim is sufficient. Instead of oyna-mak ve Sarki s0yle-mek `to dance and to sing', oyna-y-ip Sarki s0yle-mek. otur-up konuS-uyorlar `they are sitting and talking'; ara- y-ip bul-madi `he did not seek and find'; :C-:p y:-y-eceG:z `we shall drink and eat'; otur-up d:nlen-:n:z `sit and rest!'; g:d-ip g0r-mel:y:z `we ought to go and see'; seC-:p al-irsam `if I choose and buy'; gel-:p g:d-enler `those who come and go' (note that this is not synonymous with gelenler ve g:denler `those who come and those who go'). If a positive stem with -:p is followed by the same verb's negative stem with the suffix of a verbal noun or personal par- ticiple, the sense is of a choice between the positive and the negative: l:der': beGen-:p beGen-me-mek, sank: da=va=ya :nan-ip :nan-ma-ma 0lCUsU olmuStur `approval or dis- approval of the leader has become as it were the criterion of belief or disbelief in the cause' (lit. `to-approve-and not-to-approve ... has become the measure of to-believe-and not-to-believe ...'); kend:s:n: sev-:p sev-me-d:G:m: b:lm:yorum `I do not know whether I love her or not' (`... my-loving-and my-not-loving'); davetler:n:n kabul ed-:p et-m:-y-eceG:me karar vermel:-y:m `I ought to decide whether or not to accept their invitation' (`I-ought-to-give decision to-my-future-doing acceptance and my-future-not-doing'); gelel:m ben:m b:r eleSt:rmec: ol-up ol-ma-diGima `let us come to the question of whether or not I am a critic' (`let-us-come to-my-being-and my-not-being ...'). ben:m sor-ul-up sor-ul-mi-y-acaGindan end:Se ett:G:m sual Suydu `the question about which I was anxious whether it would be asked or not was this' (`the question pertaining-to-my- doing anxiety from-its-future-being-asked-and not-asked was- this'; Suydu == Su-:d:). The use of de `and' (see XIII, 2) after -:p marks a break be- tween the action of the two verbs; this is particularly common when the second verb is negative but the first is not: Zengo'yu g0r-Up de kork-ma-mak :mka=nsizdi `it was impossible to see Zengo and not be afraid'. Without the de, the meaning would be `... not to see and not to be afraid' b:l-:p de s0ylemek :stem:yenler:n tavr:yle ded: k: ... `with the air of those who know and do not want to tell, he said ...'. Here the de separates b:l- from s0ylemek and also from the negative element in :stem:yenler:n; i.e. the suffixes which are replaced by the -:p are -en-ler-:n `of those who'. Without the de, the -:p would link b:l- to s0ylemek: `... those who do not want to know and to tell'. ne yapacaksin, eve g:d:p de? `what will you do when you have gone home?' (in reply to eve g:d:- yorum `I am going home'). Here the de marks a time-lag be- tween the going and the doing. In this example there may be detected a trace of the original function of -:p, which was to create past participles. There is a clear survival of this use in the traditional joke about Nasrettin Hoja's planting a tree, making water on it and saying g0rUp g0receG:n rahmet bu kadar! `that's all the rain you're ever going to see !' (`the rain you-have- seen-and will-see is this much'). Modern writers tend to avoid using more than one -:p in a sentence, except for some stereotyped phrases: ne yapip yapip bu :S: baSarmali `at all costs (``doing-and doing what'') one must make a success of this task'; dUSUnUp dUSUnUp Su tekl:fte bulunuyorlar `after thinking and thinking they are making this proposal'. Other set expressions involving -:p include: durup dururken `without provocation', lit. `while standing and standing': durup dururken bana hUcum ett: `he attacked me unprovoked', i.e. while I was just standing and minding my own business. olup b:tmek (`to occur and finish') `to happen', of which the past tense olup b:tt: is used as a noun, `event, fait accompli'. s0vUp saymak (`to swear and recount') `to curse and swear'. 6. -:nce. This denotes action just prior to that of the main verb. The accent is on the first syllable of this suffix. o gel:nce kal- karim `when he comes I shall get up'. b0yle yaz de-y-:nce yaz-an, sus dey:nce sus-an haber mUessese-s: olur mu? `can there be an organ of the press like this, which writes when it is told to write and is silent when told to be silent?' (`thus, on--saying ``write !'' writing, on--saying ``be-silent !'' being-silent news-institution occurs?'). yaninda biCaG-i varsa Uzer:me hUcum ed-:nce ne yaparim ben? `if he has his knife on him, when he attacks me what do I do?' otobUs gel-me-y-:nce b:r taks:ye b:nd:m `as the bus did not come I got into a taxi'. hoca ol-ma-y-inca talebe olmaz ya! `if there is no teacher there is no pupil, you know !' (`teacher not- being, pupil does-not-occur'). gel:nce `on coming' is frequently used after a dative to mean `as for': bana gel:nce `as for me'; paraya gel:nce, o Cok zor b:r mesele `as for money, that's a very difficult problem'. In the older language, -:nce meant `until'; the sense of `on doing' was then expressed by the now defunct -:cek. The older meaning of -:nce survives only in proverbs: Arap doy-unca ye-r, Acem Catla-y-inca `the Arab eats until he is satisfied, the Persian until he bursts'. 7. -:nceye kadar, -:nceyedek, -:nceye deG:n `until'. This is simply the dative of -:nce with a postposition meaning `as far as': rapor neSr-ol-uncaya kadar h:C b:r Sey yapamayiz `we can- not do anything until the report is published'; 0l-Unceyedek beka=r kalacak `he will remain a bachelor until he dies'. 8. -ene kadar, -enedek, -ene deG:n `until'. This use of the dative of the present participle with a postposition meaning `as far as' is no longer confined to the popular language; though more informal than -:nceye kadar, it has a respectable recent literary past and is especially frequent in newspapers: hUkUmet, abluka altina alinan yerlerdek: TUrkler aClik tehl:kes:yle karSilaS-ana kadar pas:f kalmiStir `the government has remained passive until the Turks in the blockaded areas (``the places taken under blockade'') are faced with the danger of hunger'. bugUn-e gel-ene kadar bunun farkinda deG:ld:m `until today I was not aware of this' (`I-was-not in- the-discernment-of this'). b:z g:d-ene kadar orada hap:s kalacaktir `until we go, he will remain imprisoned there'. 9. -es:ye `to the point of'. This dative of the participle of the future II occurs mostly in set expressions: Cildir-asiya sevmek `to love to the point of going mad'; onu 0ldUr-es:ye d0vdUm `I beat him to the point of killing'; bu elb:sey: ver-es:ye yap- tir-dim `I have had this suit made on credit' (`for future giving'; the uninflected veres: is also used in this sense); bayil-asiya gUldUler `they laughed to the point of fainting'; kend:ler:nden geC-es:ye hora teperlerdi `they used to dance the hora (a cyclic dance) to the point of losing consciousness' (`to-the-point-of- passing from-themselves'). The negative is rare, except for durmamasiya `unceasingly'. -es:ye kadar in the sense of -:nceye kadar `until' is a pro- vincialism. 10. -el:, -el: ber:, -el:den ber:, -d:m -el: `since'. The -d:m in this last is the first-person singular of the past tense, which changes as appropriate: gelel: b:z buraya gelel: ber: h:C yaGmur yaGmadi gelel:den ber: geld:k gelel: `since we came here it has not rained'. s:z geld:n:z gelel: `since you came'; o geld: gelel: `since he came'. b:z buraya gelel: :k: yil oldu olmadi `it is scarcely two years since we came here' (`two years have-been have-not-been'). In the older language, -el:den was used without ber: for `since'. -el: suffixed to a negative stem means `during the time that ... not', but is best translated `since': ben g0rm:yel: b:rkaC k:lo verm:Ss:n:z `since I saw , you have lost some weight'. 11. oldum olasi or oldum olasiya. This expression means `ever since the beginning of things, for as long as anyone can remember'. It is a corruption of oldu olali `since it has been'; in spite of appearing to contain the first-person singular oldum, it does not mean `for as long as I can remember'. bu durum bugUn olmuS deG:ld:r; oldum olasi b0yled:r `this situation has not come into existence today; it has always been thus'. 12. -meden or -mezden `before, without'; -meden or -mezden evvel/0nce `before'. The forms in -mezden are much less com- mon in writing than those in -meden. ben gelmeden evvel :Se baSlamayiniz `don't start work before I come'; mektubu okumadan atti `he threw the letter away without reading '; `Para bulunmazdan k:mse Cikamaz' d:yor pol:s ```Before the money is found no one can go out'', says the policeman'. An adverb may be introduced before the evvel or 0nce: o 0lmeden az 0nce `a little before he died'; b:z ayrilmadan :k: gUn evvel `two days before we left'. Cok geCmeden (`before much passes') means `before long'. To avoid suffixing -s:z `without' to s:z `you', `without you' is ex- pressed, in contexts where sens:z would be too familiar, by s:z olmadan `without your being'. This ending -meden looks like the ablative of the -me verbal noun; hence indeed its use with evvel and 0nce. Historically, however, it is not so, as is shown by the accentuation, for the ending is enclitic, the accent falling on the verb-stem: ge=*lmeden, oku=*madan, whereas in the ablative of -me it is the -den that is accented. Because of the risk of ambiguity, the ablative of -me is not used as often as it might be; e.g. k:tap okumadan Cok eGlen:yorum could be taken to mean `I get a lot of fun without reading books', so to express `I get a lot of fun from reading books' one uses the ablative of -mek rather than of -me: k:tap okumak- tan, etc. 13. -r -mez. The juxtaposition of the positive and negative aorist bases denotes `as soon as': ben oturur oturmaz telefon Caldi `as soon as I sat down, the telephone rang' (i.e. just as I was on the border-line between not-sitting and sitting); ger:l- la=*cilar, karanlik basar basmaz g0rev :C:n derhal toplanir- lar `the guerillas assemble at once for duty as soon as darkness falls'. Colloquially, the positive and negative of the d:-past are similarly used: oturdum oturmadim telefon Caldi. A similar colloquial use is exemplified in o geld: m: geld: bana haber ver `let me know the moment he comes' (lit. `has he come? he has come; tell me'). Three exceptions: :ster :stemez is an adverbial phrase meaning `whether one wants it or not, willy-nilly'; olur olmaz and b:l:r b:lmez are adjectival phrases meaning respectively `ordinary, chosen at random' and `half-knowing, with a little knowledge'. 14. -d:kCe. The suffix -ce (XII, 2) added to the participle in -d:k denotes `so long as, the more': ben konuS-tukCa konuSacaGim gel:r `the more I talk, the more I feel like talking' (`as I talk, my-future-talking comes'). o gUl-dUkCe ben de gUldUm `the more she laughed, the more I laughed'. sen o mektubu yazmaG-i gec:kt:r-d:kCe baSlamasi gUC olacak `the more you delay writing that letter, the harder it will be to begin' (`its beginning will become hard'). dedem koynunda yat-tikCa ben:m-s:n ey gUzel toprak `so long as my ancestors lie in your bosom you are mine, o lovely land'. doGu, :nsan-in p:S-t:kCe sustuGu, sus-tukCa p:St:G: yer `the east is the place where the more one matures the more one is silent; the more silent one is the more one matures' (`the place pertaining to his--man's--being silent as-he-matures' and vice versa). The negative means much the same as -me-y-:nce: devlet yardim et-me-d:kCe fert ne yapab:l:r? `so long as the State does not help, what can the individual do?' The use of her `every' before -d:kCe gives the sense of `when- ever': b:ze her geld:kCe C:Cek get:r:yor `every time he comes to us he brings flowers'. Particularly common are g:tt:kCe `gradually' (lit. `as it goes'); gUn geCt:kCe `as the days pass'; oldukCa `rather': o akSam oldukCa az yed: `that evening he ate rather little'. 15. -d:G:nce. The suffix -ce can also be added to the personal participle; this was an old Anatolian equivalent of -d:kCe but is sometimes used nowadays in the sense of `in the measure of his doing' or `inasmuch as he does': herkes, elden geld:G:nce, fak:rlere yardim etmel: `everyone ought to help the poor as much as he can afford' (`in-the-measure-of-its-coming from- hand'). uzaGi g0remed:G:m:zce, manzara hakkinda b:r f:kr:m:z yoktu `inasmuch-as-we-could-not-see far, we had no idea about the landscape'. 16. -d:kte `on doing, at the moment of doing'. This is not very frequent. It may be reinforced by her: her mektup aldikta yUzU gUler `every time he gets a letter his face lights up'; her geld:kte kavga eder `every time he comes he quarrels'. 17. -d:kten sonra `after doing'. This is the regular converse of -meden evvel/0nce- roman-i oku-duktan sonra f:kr:m: s0yl:yey:m `let me state my opinion after reading the novel'. Expressions of time may be inserted: yen: vaz:fe-m-e baSla- diktan b:r hafta sonra tuhaf b:r Sey oldu `a week after beginning my new duty, a queer thing happened'. 18. -d:kten baSka `apart from doing, in addition to doing'; o, bu S::r: oku-duktan baSka ezberlem:S de `apart from reading this poem he has learned it by heart too'; :ng:l:zce konuS-ama-diktan baSka, tUrkCe de b:lmez-s:n `apart from not being able to speak English, you don't know Turkish either'. 19. -d:G:nden baSka. The personal participles are similarly used in the ablative with baSka: konuSamadiGindan baSka `apart from the fact that you cannot speak'; ev parasini 0d:yem:yece- G:nden (0de- `to pay') baSka `apart from the fact that he is not going to be able to pay the rent'. 20. Gerund-equivalents. The personal participles form the basis of a number of gerund-equivalents (i.e. phrases equivalent in meaning to a gerund) about which one important general observa- tion must be made: if they have a third-person subject expressed, it is in the absolute case. Consider first these three sentences: (a) o gUn yaGmur yaGdi `that day, it rained'. (b) o gUnlerde Cok yaGmur yaGdi `in those days it rained a lot'. [(c) MISSING: (o gUn yaGmurluydu)] In (a), o gUn is an adverb modifying yaGdi; in (c) it is a noun- phrase, subject of :d:. o gUnlerde in (b) is, in Turkish termino- logy, a locative complement to the verb (in English we should call it an adverbial phrase of time). Now if o is replaced by a personal participle whose subject is a noun, that noun stays in the absolute form in (a) but goes into the genitive in the other two sentences: (a) Orhan geld:G: gUn yaGmur yaGdi `the day Orhan came, it rained'. (b) Orhan'in R:ze'de kaldiGi gUnlerde Cok yaGmur yaGdi `in the days Orhan stayed at Rize, it rained a lot'. (c) Orhan'in geld:G: gUn yaGmurlu :d: `the day Orhan came was rainy'. The words Orhan geld:G: gUn in (a) are a gerund-equivalent; i.e. they could be replaced by Orhan gel:nce or Orhan geld:kte, and so Orhan remains in the absolute case. But Orhan'in kal- diGi in (b) and Orhan'in geld:G: in (c) are adjectival phrases, qualifying gUnlerde and gUn respectively, and as their subject Orhan is definite it is put in the genitive. The same distinction is seen in these examples: soyadi kanunu CikacaGi zaman ben Avrupaya g:tm:St:m `when the surname-law was about to be promulgated, I had gone to Europe'; soyadi kanununun Cika- caGi gUnlerde b:r akSam yemeG:nde AtatUrk'Un sofrasinda :d:m `in the days when the surname-law was about to be promul- gated, at one evening meal I was at AtatUrk's table'. In the first example, zaman is an adverb and the phrase soyadi ... zaman is a gerund-equivalent; in the second, gUnlerde is a noun and soyadi ... CikacaGi an adjectival phrase qualifying it. :nsan vas:yetnames:n: yazacaGi zaman avukatini CaGir- mali `when a man is about to write his will he should call his lawyer'; here again zaman is an adverb and :nsan ... zaman a gerund-equivalent. But in :nsanin vas:yetnames:n: yazacaGi zaman olur `the time occurs when a man is about to write his will', zaman is the subject, qualified by :nsanin ... yazacaGi. Such gerund-equivalents, containing the words zaman or vak:t `time', gUn `day', an `instant', sira `moment', used ad- verbially in the absolute form and qualified by a personal par- ticiple, correspond to English adverbial clauses of time. g:tt:G:m:z zaman o kaldi when we went, he stayed g:tt:G:m:z zaman o kalir when we go, he stays g:tt:G:m:z zaman o kalacak when we go, he will stay g:deceG:m:z zaman o geld: when we were about to go, he came g:deceG:m:z zaman o gel:r when we are about to go, he comes g:deceG:m:z zaman o gelecek when we are about to go, he will come 21. -d:G: mUddetCe `as long as': Osman bahCede CaliStiGi mUddetCe Sarki s0yler `Osman sings all the time he works in the garden'. In this gerund-equivalent, mUddetCe may be re- placed by the neologism sUrece. 22. -d:G: halde. The most frequent sense of this gerund- equivalent is `although': `ve' edat-i o kadar yaygin kul- laniSli olduGu halde d:l:m:zdek: yer-: sanildiGindan Cok daha az 0neml:d:r `although the particle ve is so widely used, its place in our language is much less important than is thought'. baGirdiGim halde k:mse yardima gelmed: `although I shouted, no one came to help'. It is, however, also found in its literal sense of `in a state of ...ing': bacaGi alCida olduGu halde eve d0ndU `she returned home with her leg in plaster' (`in a state of being her-leg in- plaster'; for the construction, see XVIII, 1). 23. -d:G: takd:rde lit. `in-the-assumption pertaining-to-his- ...ing' is still used to mean `in the event of his ...ing', though disapproved by modernists, who prefer a simple `if'-clause: hazir bulunamadiGiniz takd:rde toplantiyi teh:r eder:z `in the event of your being unable to be present, we shall postpone the meeting'. 24. -d:G: :C:n or -d:G:nden. The personal participle followed by :C:n or in the ablative case means `because of his ...ing': b:r mUslUman-la evlend:G: :C:n (or evlend:G:nden) k:l:seden atilmiStir `because she married a Muslim she has been expelled from the church'; bu akSam t:yatroya g:deceG:m:z :C:n (or g:deceG:m:zden) yemek erken y:yeceG:z `because we are going to go to the theatre this evening, we shall dine early'. 25. -d:G: n:spette `in proportion to his ...ing'. This is a little antiquated, and most writers nowadays would prefer -d:kCe: annem, kend:n: mUdafaaya CaliStiGi n:spette fazla ez:l:rd: `my mother used to be all the more bullied as she tried to defend herself' (`... used to be more crushed in the proportion of her trying ...'). 26. -d:G: kadar. The personal participle followed by kadar `amount' means `as much as': :sted:G:n:z kadar kalab:l:r- s:n:z `you can stay as long as you want'; doyacaGimiz kadar y:yeceG:z `we shall eat as much as will fill us' (`... the amount pertaining-to-our-future-being-satiated'). 27. -d:G: g:b: `as soon as he does/did' or `as he does/did'. In the first of these two uses the -d:G: g:b: is a gerund-equivalent. The two uses are paralleled in English; cf. `I left as he came in' and `I think as he thinks'. -eceG: g:b:, however, is not a gerund-equivalent but is used only in the literal sense of `as he will ...': 0Gretmen, ders: 0Grenc:-n:n anliyacaGi g:b: anlatmali `the teacher should explain the lesson in a way the pupil will understand' (`like what-he-will-understand')- 28. -eceG:ne or -ecek yerde `instead of ...ing': her:f benden 0zUr d:leyeceG:ne (or d:leyecek yerde) kUfUre, hakarete baSladi `the scoundrel, instead of begging pardon from me, began swearing and insulting'. baSkasi yUz vereceG:ne (or verecek yerde) s:z y:rm: ver:n `instead of someone else giving a hundred, you give twenty' (the speaker is offering a bargain). kiSin burada kal-ip yUk olacaGima (or olacak yerde) Sehre g:d-:p ekmeG:m: ararim `instead of staying here in winter and being a burden, I shall go to the city and seek my bread'. 29. -mekle. This and the next two gerunds are based on the infinitive. -mekle is frequent in its literal sense of `with/by ...ing': g:tmekle aptallik ett:m `I did a silly thing by going'; gUnU- mU hep CaliSmakla geC:rd:m `I spent my day entirely with working'. As the infinitive could regularly have a subject in the older language (see X, 3), -mekle used to occur with a subject different from that of the main verb, as in I+stanbul'da bUyUk b:r yangin zuhur etmekle, Sultan Sel:m Ed:rne'ye g:tt: `with a great fire occurring in Istanbul, Sultan Selim went to Edirne'. This now sounds highly archaic; the modern idiom would be zuhur ett:G: :C:n or CiktiGi :C:n `because ... occurred'. -mekle beraber or -mekle b:rl:kte `together with ...ing' is common in the sense of `although': pek zeng:n olmamakla beraber her zaman n:kb:nd:r `although he is not very rich he is always optimistic'. In this construction the subject of -mekle can still be different from that of the main verb. 30. -mektense or -mekten :se `rather than': Sehr:n yakici havasi altinda bunalmaktansa Sar:yer'e g:tm:ye karar verd:m `rather than be suffocated under the scorching air of the city, I decided to go to Sariyer' (g:tm:ye is the dative of g:tme, the verbal noun of g:t-). onu bu halde g0rmektense 0lUmU b:n defa terc:h eder:m `rather than see him in this state I would a thousand times prefer death'. The explanation of this form is that the -ten is comparative, so, for example, g0rmektense means `if it is by comparison with seeing, if it is from the starting-point of seeing'. An alternative explanation would make it a corruption of g0rmekten ey:s: (the modern :y:-s: `its good'), so that the original sense would have been `that which is better than seeing'. This is unlikely, as the ey:s: would have been too obviously redundant in such pro- verbial expressions as na=da=n :le konuSmaktan :se ehl-: :rfan :le taS taSimak yeGd:r `rather than converse with the ignorant it is better to carry stones with the learned' (ehl-: :rfan is a Persian izafet group). An older alternative is -medense: aGlamadansa aGlatmak :la=hi= b:r kanundur `to-make-weep rather-than-to-weep is a divine law'. This use of the ablative followed by -se is not confined to the verbal nouns; cf. h:C yoktansa ona da razi olduk `we agreed to that as being better than nothing', lit. `if it is by comparison with nothing'. 31. -meks:z:n `without ...ing'. This is less frequent than -meden. :nsan CaliSmaksizin para kazanmaz `one cannot earn money without working'; dem:ndenber: sebeb:n: b:lmek- s:z:n rahatsiz oluyordum `recently I have been getting unwell without knowing the-cause-of-it'. 32. Equivalents of `as if'. (a) -ces:ne. This suffix is used with nouns (see XII, 2 (h)) and with the base of the aorist and m:S-past and with the third-person singular inferential of the aorist, present I, future I, and m:S-past: yaGmur, bardaktan boSan-ir-casina yaGiyordu `the rain was falling as-if-being-emptied out-of-glasses'; mak:nen:n b:r parCasi ol-muS-Casina, saGa sola bakmadan CaliSiyorlardi `they were working without-looking to right to left as-if- having-become a part of the machine'; pek esk:den taniS-ir- miS-Casina el sikiStik `we shook hands as-if-being acquainted long-since', i.e. as if we had known each other for years; kend: kend:ne s0ylU-yor-muS-Casina mirildandi `he murmured as-if-talking to himself'; 0l-ecek-m:S-Ces:ne sik sik soluyordu `he was breathing rapidly as-if-about-to-die'; :y: b:r s0z s0yle- m:S-m:S-Ces:ne b0bUrlen:yordu `he was showing off as if he had said something worth saying' (lit. `as-if-having-said a good saying')- An example of the suspended affixation of this suffix: h:C b:r Sey g0rmUyor ve duymuyormuSCasina g0zUnU kapadi `he closed his eyes as if seeing and hearing nothing', i.e. g0r-mU- yor-muS-Casina ve duy-mu-yor-muS-Casina. (b) The same sense is conveyed by g:b: `like': boSanir g:b:, olmuS g:b:, taniSirmiS g:b:, etc.; the whole phrase can be introduced by sank: (see XIII, 30). (c) The dative of the base of the m:S-past is often used with benzemek `to resemble', as in timarhaneden kaC-miS-a benz:yorsun `you look as if you had escaped from the asylum' (lit. `you resemble having-escaped ...'). The same construction may be found with other bases, even that of the present (`even', because this base is not a participle): uyuyor'a benz:yor `he looks as if he is sleeping'. This is not a normal literary construc- tion; hence the apostrophe to separate the verb from the dative suffix. The closest English equivalent is `he looks like he's sleeping'. 33. -meces:ne. The addition of -ces:ne to the verbal noun in -me makes a form meaning `on condition of', used colloquially to express the terms of a wager: sali gUnUne kadar :S: b:t:r- meces:ne bahse g:rd:k `we made a bet (``we entered wager'') to finish the job by Tuesday'. This form cannot be made to refer to a particular person, nor, in this meaning, can it be made negative. For example, for `we bet that you would not be able to finish the job by Tuesday', the dative of the future personal par- ticiple is used (with the impotential -eme-): sali gUnUne kadar :S: b:t:rem:yeceG:ne bahse g:rd:k. The negative appears in durmamacasina `ceaselessly'. Synonymous are durmamasina and durmamasiya. 34 :ken Originally a participle of the obsolete er- `to be', this now means `while being'. Like the other surviving forms of that stem, it may be used as an independent word or a suffix. The e being invariable, the suffixed forms are -ken after consonants and -yken after vowels: bu kel:me aslinda :s:mken, edat olarak da kullanilir `while this word is originally a noun, it is also used as a particle' (`this word in-its-origin noun-while-being, it is also used being a particle'); kend:s: Cocukken babasi 0lmUStU `while he was a child (``himself child-while-being''), his father had died'; ben oradayken (orada :ken) 0yle b:r n:yet: yoktu `while I was there he had no such intention'. It may be suffixed to any tense-base, positive or negative, singular or plural, except the d:-past, but is most frequent with the aorist: o g:derken muhakkak ben: uyandir `when he is going, be sure to wake me'; Cocuklar parkta oynarlarken b:z CarSiya g:tt:k `while the children were playing in the park, we went to the market'; b:zde kanunlarin CoGu tatb:k ed:lmezken acaba bu kanun neden kemal-: c:dd:yetle tatb:k ed:l:r? `amongst us while most of the laws are not applied, why, I won- der, is this law applied in real earnest?' (kemal-: c:dd:yetle is a Persian izafet: `with perfection-of seriousness'). With bases other than the aorist: kapici bana anahtari ver:yor-ken zil 0ttU `while the janitor was giving me the key, the bell rang'; b:z hana g:rmekte-yken gUneS batti `while we were entering the inn, the sun set'; gUrUltUden neSem:z kaCmiS-ken hep:m:z gene gUldUk `while our pleasure had fled (``our-pleasure while-being-having-fled'') because of the noise, we all laughed again'; sirasi gelm:S-ken Sunu da s0yl:yey:m `as the time for it has come (``its-time while-being-having-come''), let me say this too'; ka=Gidi alacak-ken durdu `while-about-to- take the paper, he stopped'; tam g0mecek-ler-ken 0lmekten cayiyor `just as-they-are-about-to-bury he changes his mind about (``swerves away from'') dying'. With the future participle in the depreciatory sense (IX, 2, end): marangoz olacak-ken gUzel:m dolabimizi berbat ett: `while he is supposed to be a carpenter, he has ruined our lovely cupboard'. Like the English `while', :ken may be used concessively: o del:kanli, Cok :r: yapili :ken (or yapiliyken) gUrbUz sayilamaz `that young man, while of very large build, cannot be considered robust'. In the next example, :ken is followed by the ablative suffix: sen:n kadarkendenber: pul topluyorum `I have been collect- ing stamps since I was your age' (-ken-den-ber: `since while being'; sen:n kadar `as big as you')- 35. Compound verbs. (a) The addition of durmak to the -e or -:p gerunds denotes continuous action: s0ylenedurmak or s0ylen:p durmak `to keep grumbling'. Less commonly, a finite tense may be followed by the same tense of durmak: s0ylen:r durur `he keeps grumbling'; s0ylend: durdu `he kept grumbling'. A colloquial alternative is -e komak or -e koymak: CaliSako or CaliSakoy `keep on working !' (b) The addition of gelmek to the -e gerund has the same effect: neler Cek-e-geld: `what things he-has-always-suffered!'; b0yle :Sler ol-a-geld: `such things have always happened'; kullan-a-geld:G:m:z ArapCa ve FarsCa kel:meler `the Arabic and Persian words which we have always used'; okun-a- gelen k:taplar `books which are always being read'. The gel- is sometimes written separately: bu hata y:ne yapila gelmekted:r `this mistake is still being constantly made'. Exceptional is Cik-a-gelmek, meaning not `to keep coming up' but `to come up suddenly'. (c) -e-kalmak `to remain, be left ...ing': don-a-kaldim `I was left freezing, was petrified'; bak-a-kaldilar `they re- mained staring'. (d) The imperative of g0rmek placed after the negative of the -e gerund of other verbs means `mind you don't', or, if the imperative be that of the third person, `beware, lest ...': oraya g:t-m:-y-e-g0r `mind you don't go there'; harp ateS-: yan- mi-y-a g0r-sUn `beware lest the fire of war be kindled'. (e) Until the nineteenth century, the m:S- or d:-past of yaz- mak, added to an -e gerund, indicated that the action of the first verb was narrowly averted. Even as an archaism, the only example one might see now is dUS-e-yazdi `he well-nigh fell'. The modern expression for this is az kaldi dUSUyordu, lit. `little remained he-was-falling'. (f) Rapid or sudden action is conveyed by suffixing to a verb- stem an : (or, after a vowel, y:), which changes with vowel- harmony, and vermek: onu kaldir-i-verel:m `let us quickly remove it'; Abdurrahman'in :C:nden Su her:f: den:ze uCur- u-vermek geCt: `Abdurrahman felt like chucking that fellow into the sea' (`to-suddenly-make-to-fly that fellow to-the-sea passed through-his-inside'); k0prU C0k-U-verd: `the bridge suddenly collapsed'. Colloquially, the first element may be re- peated: k0prU C0kU C0kUverd:. The passive suffix is attached to the ver-, not to the first verb- stem: kapidan diSariya koy-u-ver-:l-d: `he-was-rapidly-put outside the door'. There are alternative forms of the negative. If the ver- is negated, it means that the rapid or sudden action was not done: g:d-:-vermek `to go quickly, to dash'; CarSiya kadar g:d:verd: `he dashed as far as the market'; CarSiya kadar n:C:n g:d:ver- me-d:? `why did he not dash as far as the market?' If the ma:n stem is negated, it means `to stop abruptly': CarSiya kadar n:C:n g:t-me-y-:-verd:? `why has he suddenly stopped going as far as the market?' (g) The addition of g:tmek to the -e gerund denotes con- tinuity or finality according to context: :y:l:Ge keml:k ol-a- gelm:S ol-a-g:der (proverb) `kindness has always been requited with evil and always will be' (`for-good, bad has-always-happened, always-will-go-on-happening'). kadinlarimizin yUzUnden ati- lan peCe bUtUn gerCekler:m:z:n yUzUnden at-il-a-g:decek- t:r `the veil cast away from the face of our women will-be-cast- away-and-done-with from the face of all our realities'. See also the use of -d:r g:der in VIII, 43. (h) Colloquially, finality is expressed by the use of the third- person past g:tt: after any person of the d:-past of another verb: b:r tUrlU isinamadim g:tt: Su koltuGa `I just haven't been able to get used to this ministerial post, and that's all there is to it' (said in false modesty by a `man of the people'). b0yle kapandi g:tt: hirsizliktan Cok daha bUyUk b:r suC, :nsanlari yok yere suClandirma suCu `thus was a crime much graver than theft covered up and done with, the crime of accusing people falsely'. Alternatively, the base of the m:S-past may be followed by g:tm:S with the appropriate personal ending: 0lmUS g:tm:S- ler `they're dead and gone'; unutmuS g:tm:S:m `I've totally forgotten'. XII. [MISSING: ADJECTIVES] 1. General observations. Almost any `adjective' may modify a verb: :y: good :y: CaliSir he works well doGru straight yol doGru g:der the road goes straight heyecanli excited heyecanli konuSuyor he is talking excitedly aCik open aCik konuSalim let us speak openly aGir heavy aGir basti it pressed heavily yavaS slow yavaS g:t go slowly A repeated adjective or noun may serve as an adverb: yavaS yavaS yUrUyorduk we were walking slowly h:ka=yey: gUzel gUzel anlatti he told the story beautifully kapi kapi dolaStim I wandered door door ev ev aradilar they conducted a house-to-house search efend: efend: davrandi he behaved in a gentlemanly way Cf. hanim hanimcik oturdu `she sat like a proper little lady'. There are a host of reduplicated adverbial expressions, includ- ing onomatopoeic words like horul horul; see XIV, 29. Some verbs have reduplicated cognate adverbs ending in m : sUrUm sUrUm sUrUnmek `to grovel grovellingly', i.e. to drag out a wretched existence; burum burum burulmak `to be con- torted gripingly'; kivrim kivrim kivrilmak `to writhe con- vulsively'. The adverb :C:n :C:n `inwardly' must not be confused with the postposition :C:n `for'. The distributive numerals when repeated serve as adverbs: :k:Ser :k:Ser g:rd:ler `they entered two by two'; d0rder d0rder `in fours'; :k:Ser UCer `in twos and threes'. For `one by one', however, b:r b:r or teker teker is preferred to b:rer b:rer. `Little by little' is azar azar. Adjectives can be made into adverbs with the help of suret (A) `shape' and hal (A) `condition': haf:fsurette `lightly' (`in light shape'); aGir surette `heavily'; fena halde `badly, unpleasantly ' The same is done for adjectives and nouns with the help of olarak (XI, 4): azami= olarak `at most' (`being maximal'); Saka olarak `jokingly' (`it being a joke'). 2. -ce. This enclitic suffix makes adverbs from substantives. (a) From adjectives it makes adverbs of manner: :y: `good', :y:ce `well'; gUzel `beautiful', gUzelce `beautifully, properly'; doGru `straight', doGruca `directly'. (b) The pronominal n which appears before the case-endings of third-person pronouns appears also before this suffix: bu `this', bunca `this much, so much'; o or kend:s: `he', onca or kend:s:nce `according to him'; bazilari `some people', bazilarinca `on the part of some people'. (c) The translation of the adverbs it makes from nouns depends on the context, as with the pronouns in the preceding paragraph. In the next two examples we have plain adverbs of manner: CocukCa konuSuyorsun `you are talking childishly'; ordumuz, dUSmana aslanca saldirdi `our army attacked the enemy like lions'. Sometimes it means `in respect of' and corresponds to the American use of `-wise': adanin araz:s: toprakCa zayiftir `the island's land is weak in respect of soil'; karisi kend:s:nden yaSCa bUyUak ve zeka=ca UstUndUr `his wife is older than he (``bigger age-wise'') and intellectually superior'; karinca karar- i-n-ca lit. `the ant according to its assessment', i.e. `one contri- butes to the extent of one's modest ability'. (d) In the sense of `on the part of', it is rapidly superseding tarafindan as an indicator of the agent of a passive verb: M:lli= Savunma BakanliGi-n-ca hazirlanan teklif, Mal:ye-ce redded:lm:St:r `the proposal prepared by the Ministry of National Defence has been rejected by the Finance Department'. dUnyaca meShur `world-famous' (`famed on-the-part-of-the- world'). (e) The adverbs it makes when attached to names of peoples come to be used as names of their languages and then as adjectives: tUrkCe konuSmak `to speak like-the-Turks, to speak Turkish'; akici b:r tUrkCe :le ded: k: ... `in a fluent Turkish, he said tUrkCe s0zlUk `Turkish dictionary'; :ng:l:zce konuSmak `to speak English'; :ng:l:zcen:z nasil? `how is your English?'; :ng:l:zce b:r kel:me `an English word'. Hence, with the inter- rogative ne: nece? `(in) what language?' (f) In numerical expressions: k:lometrelerce uzak `kilo- metres away' (`distant kilometres-wise'); haftalarca 0nce `weeks before'; uCaklarin m:ktari 10.000 lerced:r (read on b:n- lerced:r) `the number of aircraft is in the tens of thousands'; bu m:llet, ben:m g:b: daha b:nlerce Mustafa Kemal Cikarir `this nation will produce thousands more Mustafa Kemals like me'. (g) Added to the demonstratives b0yle, S0yle, and 0yle. b0ylece and the far rarer 0ylece have the sense of `therefore' as well as `thus': :S b0yle tamamlandi `the job was completed in this way'; b0ylece :S tamamlandi `that's how the job came to be completed'. S0ylece is synonymous with S0yle `thus'. (h) Extensions of -ce. (i) -cene: b0ylecene, :y:cene are colloquial alternatives for b0ylece, :y:ce. (ii) -ces:ne. This is occasionally used to make adverbs from nouns: domuz-casina `piggishly'; canavar-casina `like a monster'; eSek-Ces:ne `like a donkey'. See XI, 32. 3. Nouns used adverbially. (a) In the absolute case: sabah akSam CaliSiyorum `I am working morning evening'; hava alani, Seh:rden on beS k:lometre uzaktir `the airfield is 15 km. distant from the city'; s:zden b:r baS uzundur `he is a head taller than you'; :k: hafta evvel `two weeks ago'. Note, however, that b:r an evvel does not mean `a moment before' but `as soon as possible'. (b) In the dative and ablative cases (cf. #13 (e)): doGrudan doGruya `directly, without intermediary'; :nce-den :nce-ye `in fine detail'; dar-a dar `narrowly, only just'; baS-a baS `on equal terms'; baS baS-a `te=te a*= te=te'; baS-tan baS-a `entirely'; b:r-den-b:r-e (written as one word) `immediately'; gUn-den gUn-e `from day to day'; gUnU gUnU-n-e `to the very day', `by return of post', (lit. `its-day to-its-day')- (c) In the old instrumental case. See #13 (f) and I, 39 (d), and note the widely used neologism 0rneG:n `for example', this being the instrumental of 0rnek `pattern'. 4. Foreign adverbs. Arabic substantives with the Arabic accusative ending -an (unaccented) are used as adverbs, e.g.: :kt:sat economics :kt:saden economically kaza accident kazaen accidentally muvakkat temporary muvakkaten temporarily n:spet proportion n:speten relatively s:yaset politics s:yaseten politically Ser: religious law Ser'an canonically Possibly because the two adjacent vowels of kazaen (originally separated by a glottal stop) are hard to pronounce, the Persian synonym kazara is more usual. It is not unknown for people of limited education to coin analogous adverbs from non-Arabic words, such as kUltUren for `culturally', properly kUltUrce or kUltUr bakimindan `from the point of view of culture'. In a number of commonly used adverbs of this formation the original -an came to be pronounced as long a; e.g. evvela= `first of all'; asla `never'; acaba `I wonder' (lit. `wonderingly'); mutlaka `absolutely'; faraza `hypothetically, for argument's sake'- mesela= `for example'- ha=la= `still' (which exists side by side with ha=len `at present', both from @a**lan). The final a of acaba is now pronounced short. From the Arabic a**n `moment' and sa**"at- `hour' were formed, with the Persian preposition ba `by', anbean `from moment to moment', and saatbesaat `from hour to hour'. Analogous formations with the Turkish yil and gUn are yilbeyil `year by year' and gUnbegUn `day by day'. These are disapproved by purists (just as English purists disapprove `per day'), as is 0zbe- 0z `one hundred per cent genuine', similarly formed from the Turkish 0z `self, essence', which has a firm place in the colloquial. French has recently contributed otomat:kman `automatically', though purists prefer otomat:k olarak. From the dialectal Italian giaba comes caba `gratis, into the bargain'. 5. Comparison of adverbs. This follows the pattern of com- parison of adjectives (III, 4): sen benden :y: b:l:rs:n `you know better than I'; uCak, sesten sUratl: g:d:yor `the aircraft is going faster than sound'. Cok `much' when following an ablative translates `more, rather than': annes:nden Cok babasina benz:yor `he resembles his father more than his mother'. The Arabic z:yade (`increase') is similarly used: speleoloj:, b:r spordan z:yade b:r :l:md:r `speleology is a science rather than a sport'. In negative sentences `much' is translated by pek (which as an adjective means `strong'): pek sevm:yorum `I don't much like'; pek gelmez `he doesn't come much'. `Most' is en Cok: en Cok teyzes:ne benz:yor `he most resembles his aunt'. In the presence of another adverb, however, Cok is unnecessary: en sUratl: g:den uCak, jet uCaGidir `the aircraft which goes most quickly is the jet aircraft'. 6. b:r. Besides meaning `one' and `a', b:r is used adverbially to mean `once' and `only': her hafta b:r gel:yor `he comes once every week'; b:r g0rUrse ne yapab:l:r:z? `if once he sees, what can we do?'; b:r ona, b:r bana bakti `he gave a look at him, a look at me'; her Sey b:tt:, b:r bu kaldi `everything is finished, only this is left'; b:r ben, b:r de Allah b:l:r `only God and I know' (said when hinting at a dark secret); bunu b:r sen yapab:l:rs:n, b:r de o `only you and he can do this'. b:r de `and another thing, moreover' (for de see XIII, 2): sen gel, b:r de arkadaSin gels:n `come, and let your friend come too'. In the locution b:r de ne g0rey:m it conveys surprise; `and all of a sudden': pencereden baktim b:r de ne g0rey:m, b:r pol:s kapiya doGru yUrUyor `I looked through the window and all of a sudden what should I see--a policeman is walking towards the door'. 7. b:r tUrlU `by no means' (in negative sentences). As a noun, tUrlU means `kind, category'; as an adjective, `various'. b:r tUrlU onu kandiramadim `I just could not convince him'. 8... . b:le or hatta= ... `even'. sirrini benden b:le sakladi ` `he concealed his secret even from me'. hatta= (A), though less common than b:le, is standing its ground: cam:y: kaC defa gezd:m hatta= m:nareler:ne Ciktim `how many times have I gone round the mosque; I have even been up its minarets'. Colloquially, it may be repeated, or preceded by daha, for emphasis: :y: futbolcular, kla=s adamlar, hatta= hatta= yildizlar vardi aralarinda `there were good footballers among them, men of class, even stars'. bugUnUn :nsani lUks aramiyor, hatta= :stem:yor, daha hatta=, lUks'den kaCiyor `the man of today is not looking for luxury, he does not even want it; he even runs away from luxury'. It may reinforce b:le : hatta= onu sevm:yenler b:le cesaret:n: :nka=r edem:yorlar `even those who do not like him cannot deny his courage'. 9. a=deta `virtually, as it were'. The OTD defines the word thus: `as usual; simply; merely; sort of; nearly; as good as: walk! (riding command).' This, though all true, obscures the fact that ninety-nine times out of a hundred a=deta is used to tone down an exaggeration or to apologize for a metaphor: bu k:tap, a=deta s:z:n :C:n yazilmiS g:b:d:r `this book seems virtually to have been written for you'. bu dar ve uzun va=d:, a=deta b:r korkulu rUyaya benz:yordu `this narrow and long valley resembled, as it were, a dreadful dream'. 10. Adverbs of place: :Cer: inside diSari outside yukari up aSaGi down :ler: forward ger: backward 0te yonder ber: hither karSi opposite (a) All these can be used as nouns: ev-:n yukari-si k:ralik `the upper part of the house is to let'; kuyu-nun aSaGi-si karanlikti `the bottom of the well was dark'; :S-:n 0te-s:n: bana birak `leave the rest of the business to me'. (b) Or as adjectives: :ler: f:k:rler `progressive ideas'; saat:m beS dak:ka ger: `my watch is five minutes slow'; karSi yaka `the opposite shore'. For `inside' and `outside' as adjectives, how- ever, :C and diS (VII, 6) are commoner than :Cer: and diSari. (c) All but 0te and karSi can be used as postpositions with the ablative. (d) As adverbs, they indicate motion towards, either in the absolute form or in the dative, except that 0te-ye and karSi-ya [LINE MISSING] went inside'; diSari or diSariya g:tt: `he went outside'; 0teye g:tt: `he went further on'; karSiya g:tt: `he went to the opposite side'. The earthy expression for being on the horns of a dilemma is: aSaGi tUkUrsem sakalim, yukari tUkUrsem biyiGim `if I spit down, my beard; if I spit up, my moustache'. To indicate rest in or motion from, they are put in the locative or ablative respectively; in these cases :Cer:, diSari, yukari, and :ler: generally lose their final vowel: :Cerden `from inside'; diSarda `on the outside'; :lerde `in front, in the forefront, in future'; yukardan `from above, from upstairs'; aSaGida `down below, downstairs'. 11. aSiri. As an adjective or adverb this word means `excessive(ly)'. With a noun preceding, it means `beyond, at an interval of': den:z aSiri b:r memleket `an overseas country'; gUn aSiri `every other day'; b:zden b:r ev aSiri oturuyorlar `they are living one house from us, next door but one'. It is not a post- position; the construction is as in k0yden b:r k:lometre uzak `one kilometre distant from the village'. 12. -re. The addition of this unaccented suffix to bu, Su, o, and ne turns them into nouns of place, of which the dative, locative, and ablative cases make the equivalents of English adverbs of place: buraya hither Suraya, oraya thither nereye whither? burada here Surada, orada there nerede where? buradan hence Suradan, oradan thence nereden whence? The locative and ablative forms may lose their first a or e: burda, nerden, etc. The absolute forms bura, Sura, etc., can theoretically occur as subject of a sentence but seem never to do so in standard Turkish; instead, they take the third-person suffix (II, 22 (d)): orasi gUzel `that place is beautiful'; burasi neres:? `what place is this?' It must be emphasized that when `here' means `this place' and not `in this place' burasi and not burada must be used: burasi Ankara Radyo'su `Here is Ankara Radio'. So with Surasi and orasi; for example, in this extract from a description of darkest Africa: VahSi= hayvanlar orada :d:. Yamyamlar, p:gmeler orada :d:. S:yah irkin anavatani orasi :d: `Wild animals were there. Cannibals and pygmies were there. The motherland of the black race was there'. bura, etc., can be the first or second element of izafet groups: bura halk-i kuzu g:b: `the people of this place are like lambs'; ora-nin hava-si gUzel `the weather of that place is beautiful'; Sehr-:n ora-si Cok pahali `that part of the city is very expensive'; Sehr-:n nere-s:-n-de oturuyorsun? `in what part of the city are you living?'; bura-si-n-da `in this part of it'. orasi and Surasi may mean `that/this aspect of the matter under discussion': ne :st:yorlar senden?--orasini b:lm:yorum `what do they want of you?'--`I don't know that part of it'; Surasi da var `there is the following point about it too'; Surasini unutmiyalim `let us not forget the following fact'. buraca, oraca (#2) mean `on the part of this/that place, institution', etc.: buraca ver:lecek b:lg: yok `there is no information to be given by-this-department'; Senato'ya arzo- lunan fakUlte karari, oraca kabul ed:lm:St:r `the faculty decision submitted to the Senate has been accepted by-that-body', The diminutive of Surada is quite common: Suracikta `just over there'; buracikta and oracikta are rarer. In the plural: oralari gezd:n:z m:? `have you toured those parts?'; buralarin yabancisiyim `I am a stranger in these parts' (lit. `the stranger of these parts'); buralarda otel var mi? `is there an hotel hereabouts?' With -l: : burali deG:l:m `I am not a native of this place'; nerel:s:n:z? `of what place are you a native?' neredeyse or nerdeyse (i.e. nerede :se, lit. `wherever it is'), means `soon' or `almost'. Ahmet nerede, Mehmet nerede (lit. `where is A., where is M.?') means `how can you compare Ahmet and Mehmet?' Cf. the colloquial use of a single nerede for `far from it!', `not likely!' 13. Adverbs of time. (a) Nouns used as adverbs of time usually appear in the absolute case: ne zaman oldu? `when did it happen?' (`what time?' in the broad sense, not `at what o'clock?', for which see the next [MISSING LINE] today'; yarin akSam gelecek `he will come tomorrow evening'; geCen yil `last year'; dUn sabah `yesterday morning'; b:r gUn `one day' (but gUnUn b:r:nde `some day'); sabah sabah `early in the morning'; sabah akSam `all day long' (lit. `morning evening'); o saat `straight away' (see I, 16). Izafet groups in the absolute case: akSamUstU, less commonly akSamUzer:, means `at sunset', lit. `evening-top', i.e. `on even- ing'; cf. yemekUstU `at dinner-time', suCUstU `redhanded' (`on guilt'). Names of days of the week are mostly used in izafet with gUn `day': CarSamba gUnU geld: `he came on Wednesday'. (b) Some adverbs consist in plural nouns with the third-person suffix, which has the defining function mentioned in II, 22: akSamlari `in the evenings, of an evening'; geceler: `by night'; sabahlari `of a morning'. The adverbs sonra `after' and 0nce `before' are similarly treated: sonralari `afterwards'; 0nceler: `previously'. (c) The locative occurs in, for example, :lkbaharda `in spring', sonbaharda `in autumn'; bu esnada, o esnada `meanwhile'; bu/o sirada `at this/that time'; geCenlerde `recently'; s:md:- lerde `round about now'; bayramda `at the festival'. With names of months: haz:randa `in June'; haz:ran ayinda `in the month of June'; y:rm: alti temmuzda `on 26 July'. With years: 1453 te (b:n d0rt yUz ell: UCte) `in 1453'; 1453 yilinda or senes:nde `in the year 1453'. (d) The dative: haftaya g0rUSUrUz `we'll meet next week'; akSama gel:r `he'll come this evening'. (e) Coktan (`from much') means `for a long time, long since', but the meaning of other adverbs formed in the ablative case is not so readily apparent: bugUnden yarini dUSUnmel: means `one should think about tomorrow today', not `from today on- ward' but `from the standpoint of today'. Similarly, S:md:den means `already now', not `from now'; esk:den `in the old days'; 0nceden `at first'; sonradan `subsequently'. (f) The old instrumental case appears in: yazin `in summer'; kiSin `in winter'; gUzUn `in autumn' (for which sonbaharda is much commoner); gUndUzUn `in the daytime'; :lk:n `first of all'; d0nUSUn `on the return journey'. It is also the last element in the invariable suffix -ley:n : sabahley:n `in the morning', akSamley:n `at evening' (see p. 205, Addendum). Addendum to #13. The same suffix is seen in -c:ley:n, meaning `-like'. Though otherwise obsolete, it survives in benc:ley:n and b:zc:ley:n, sometimes used (especially by Yakup Kadri Kara- osmanoGlu) in mock humility for `like poor old me' and `like us ordinary mortals' respectively. 14. Telling the time. (a) saat kaC? what is the time? saat b:r one o'clock saat b:r: beS geC:yor five past one (`five is passing hour one') saat b:r: Ceyrek geC:yor quarter past one saat b:r: y:rm: beS geC:yor five-and-twenty past one saat b:r buCuk half past one (`hour one and a half') saat :k:ye y:rm: beS var five-and-twenty to two (`there are twenty-five to hour two') saat :k:ye Ceyrek var quarter to two (b) saat kaCta? at what time? saat b:rde at one o'clock saat b:r: beS geCe (XI,2) at five past one saat b:r: Ceyrek geCe at a quarter past one saat b:r buCukta at half past one saat :k:ye y:rm: beS kala at five-and-twenty to two saat :k:ye Ceyrek kala at a quarter to two saat may be omitted in the answers though not in the questions: b:r buCuk `half past one'; b:r buCukta `at half past one'. 15. ertes:. The bare erte `the morrow' is no longer used, but the form with the third-person suffix appears in izafet in, for example, bayram ertes: `the day after the festival', savaS ertes: `the day after the battle' and, somewhat abraded, in cumartes: `Saturday' (< cuma ertes: `the morrow of Friday') and pazartes: `Monday' (pazar `Sunday'). As an adjective, ertes: means `the following' and occurs in such adverbial phrases as ertes: gUn `(on) the following day', ertes: ay `(in) the follow- ing month'. ertes: ve daha ertes: gUnler `(on) the two following days'. 16. evvels:, evvelk:. evvels: `previous' is for an earlier evvel-:-s: (for the doubled suffix cf. V, 7). It is far commoner than the synonymous evvelk:. Despite its third-person suffixes, it is used only adjectivally: evvels: gUn `the previous day, the day before yesterday', evvels: yil `the previous year, the year before last'. The spellings evels:, evelk:, are common but not recommended. 17. evvel and sonra, `before' and `after', both used as post- positions with the ablative, are also adverbs: b:r hafta evvel oldu `it happened a week ago'; UC gUn sonra gelecek `he will come three days later, three days from now'; on seneden az b:r zaman evvel ` less than ten years ago'. Note b:r hafta evvel-:-n-e kadar, `until a week ago'; on sene evvel:ne kadar `until ten years ago'. 18. S:md: `now'. Colloquially it may take the diminutive suffix: S:md:c:k, also S:mc:k and S:md:k, `just now, right away'. In the dative: S:md:ye kadar `until now'. In the ablative: S:md:den sonra `after now, henceforth'. Colloquial in the same sense is S:mdenger:. For S:md:den see also #13 (e); a colloquial variant is S:mden. 19. artik, bundan b0yle, gayri. artik means `at last' or `hence- forth', i.e. it marks a turning-point: artik g:del:m `that's enough of that; let's go'; artik yaz geld: `summer has come at last'; biktim artik ` now I'm fed up'; artik bunu yapmaz `he won't do this any more'. Synonymous in the sense of `henceforth' are bundan b0yle and the provincial gayri : bundan b0yle oraya g:tmem `I'm not going there any more'; :nsaf gayri! (lit. `justice henceforth') `it's time we had a bit of fair play!' 20. daha `still, more, (not) yet' partly overlaps the senses of ha=la= (A) `still, (not) yet' and henUz (P) `just, (not) yet': daha (or ha=la=) burada misin `are you still here?'; ha=la= daha burda misin (coll.) `are you still here?'; daha (or ha=la= or henUz) g:tmed: m: `hasn't he gone yet?'; daha okuyacak b:r Sey kalmadi `there is nothing more left to read'; daha dUn geld: `he came only yesterday'; mektubu henUz aldim, daha (or ha=la=) okuyamadim `I have just received the letter; I haven't yet been able to read it'; daha b:r hafta bekled:k `we have already waited a week'; daha b:r hafta beklemel:y:z `we must still wait a week'; b:r hafta daha beklemel:y:z `we must wait one more week'. b:r daha in negative sentences means `no more, not again': oraya b:r daha g:tme `don't go there any more'. 21. hemen (P) `at once, just about': gUneS doGunca hemen yola Ciktilar `the sun having risen, they at once set out'; hemen o siralarda taniSmiStik `we had become acquainted just about that time'. hemencek and hemencec:k (both coll.) `instantly': ben: g0rUnce hemencec:k duvardan atladi `seeing me, he instantly leaped over the wall'. hemen hemen `almost, very soon': hemen hemen :k: yil oldu `it has been almost two years' (lit. `almost two years have happened'); muamma hemen hemen halled:lecek `the riddle will very soon be solved'. Cf. neredeyse, #12. 22. gene, y:ne `again, still': gene o adam `it's that man again'; h:C telefon etmed:, gene :y: ; konuSacak vakt:m yok `he has not telephoned at all; still, that's all right; I have no time to talk', 23. The verb `to be' in temporal expressions: ell: seneden fazladir Su evde oturuyor `she has been living in that house for over fifty years' (`it is more than fifty years she is living ...'); b:r buCuk saatt:r sen: ariyorum `I have been looking for you for an hour and a half'; kaC zamandir konuSmadik `we haven't talked for quite some time' (`how much time it is we have not talked'); :k: yil oluyor Par:s'e g:tt: `getting on for two years ago he went to Paris' (`two years are coming into being he went - - -'); Ahmet k0yden ayrilali (XI, 10) alti ay oldu `it has been six months since Ahmet left the village' (`six months have happened since ...'). The adverb bildir `a year ago, a year before' (which is not very common in writing) appears to be a phonetic simplification of b:r yil-dir `it is a year'. 24. derken (i.e. the aorist of demek--ken, lit. `while saying') is used for: (a) `while everyone is saying ...': yen: yol b:tt: b:t:yor derken ha=la= b:tmed: `while everyone is saying the new road is just about finished (lit. ``has finished is finishing''), it still is not finished'. (b) `at that precise moment': sokaGa Cikiyordu, derken telefon Caldi `he was going out and at that precise moment the telephone rang'. (c) `while attempting to', with a first-person subjunctive: onu kurtarayim derken ben de dUStUm `while attempting to save him, I fell too' (lit. `while saying ``let me save him'' . . ') XIII. CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES 1. ve (A) `and' is little used in speech and many Turks contrive to dispense with it entirely in writing, employing the native resources of the language instead: :le, -:p, de (see next section), or simple juxtaposition. That is to say, co-ordinate words and clauses may be put one after the other with no conjunction at all, on the pattern of Caesar's veni vidi vici. Thus `he came into the room and sat down on a chair' may be odaya g:rd: ve b:r sandalyeye oturdu or odaya g:r:p b:r sandalyeye oturdu or odaya g:rd:, b:r sandalyeye oturdu. `You and I' may be sen ve ben or sen:nle ben. `You, I, and your brother' may be sen, ben, ve kardeS:n or sen, ben, kardeS:n de or just sen, ben, kardeS:n. The Persian for `and', o**, came into Ottoman as u or U after consonants, vu or vU after vowels, forms which survive in some compound nouns: abuhava `climate' (a**b (P) `water', hawa**' (A) `air'); hercUmerc `turmoil, Armageddon' (h` arj wa-marj (A), with Persian o** replacing Arabic wa). Similar Ottoman expressions which have not attained the status of Turkish words are now written separately: yar U aGyar `friend and foe'; kaza vU kader `fate and destiny'. 2. de `and, also, too' never begins a sentence and, though written as a separate word, is enclitic and changes to da after back- vowels. It also changes to te or ta after unvoiced consonants, although the modern tendency, supported by YI+K, is not to show this change in writing. (a) When it means `too', it follows the word it modifies: oraya ben de g:tt:m `I too went there'; ben oraya da g:tt:m `I went there too' (as well as elsewhere); ben oraya g:tt:m de `I went there too' (I did not only read about it); Sapka-n-i, palto-n-u da g:y `wear your hat and your coat too'. (b) Repeated, it equals `both ... and ...': Sapkani da paltonu da g:y `wear both your hat and your coat'; ben de sen de kar- deS:n de `both I and you and your brother'. (c) When it comes between two words which it connects, it can usually be translated `and', but often it has an overtone: `and then', `and so', or even `but': CaliSmiS da kazanmiS `he worked and he won'; ev:me kadar g:dey:m de s:ze geley:m `let me go as far as my house and then come to you'; b:z: g0rdU de sela=m vermed: `he saw us but did not give us greeting'; nasil oldu da seC:lmed:n:z? `how was it that you were not chosen?' (`how did it happen and so you were not chosen?'); ne yapti da kurtuldu? `how did he manage to escape?' (`what did he do and so was saved?'); ne :y: ett:n de geld:n `how well you did to come !' (`... and came'); s0yle de gels:n `tell him to come' (`say, and so let him come'); 0lUr de s0ylemez `he will die rather than tell' (`he will die and will not tell')- (d) A common elliptical use is seen in: n:C:n sormadin?-- utandim da ... `why didn't you ask?'--`I was ashamed, that's why', lit. `I was ashamed and '. A fuller form is: utandim da ondan `I was ashamed and therefore ...' (lit. `and from-that'). (e) After a repeated verb, de indicates sudden action after a long delay: m:saf:r gelmez gelmez de, b:rden gel:r `the guest does not come, does not come, and suddenly he comes'; durdu durdu da, turnayi g0zUnden vurdu `he stood, stood, then shot the crane in the eye' (i.e. after a long spell of apparent indecision he acted with great speed and efficiency). (f) It has an emphasizing function after pronouns and adverbs: :k:s: de `both of them'; UCUmUz de `all three of us'; sus, sen de! `quiet, you!'; ne de gUzel Sey! `what a pretty thing!'; o f:l:m Cok da gUzel :m:S `that film is said to be very good'; bu s0ylent: h:C de doGru deG:l `this rumour is not at all true'; durum, daha da aGirlaSmiStir `the position has become even more serious'. (g) dah: `too, also', from which de is derived, is seldom used by the younger generation of writers. 3. ne ... ne ... or ne ... ne de ...`neither ... nor ...'. The number of nes is not restricted to two. Whether to use a positive or a negative verb with ne is to some extent a matter of taste. The following rules sum up the general literary usage. The verb is positive: (a) When each ne introduces a separate verb or separate clause: k:tabi ne aldim ne de okudum `I neither bought the book nor read it'; ne t:yatroya g:der ne radyoyu d:nler `he neither goes to the theatre nor listens to the radio'. (b) When one verb, in the non-initial position, covers both or all clauses: bu sabah ne Cay ne kahve :Ct:m `this morning I drank neither tea nor coffee'; ne S:S yansin ne kebap `let neither the spit burn nor the meat' (i.e. I hope no harm comes to either party); ne TUrkCe, ne ArapCa, ne FarsCa b:l:yor `he knows neither Turkish nor Arabic nor Persian'. The verb is negative: (a) When one verb covers and precedes both or all the elements introduced by ne: gelmez ne dost ne dUSman `there does not come either friend or foe'; bugUn Cikmadim ne bahCeye ne sokaGa `today I have not gone out either to the garden or to the street'. (b) When it is conditional: ne sen, ne ben bu :Se kariSmasa- ydik b0yle olmazdi `if neither you nor I had interfered in this business, it would not be like this'. For the first-person plural verb see XVI, 3 (d). (c) If the negative nature of the sentence is emphasized by an adverb or particle: ne tUtUne, ne :Ck:ye sakin aliSmayin `mind you don't become accustomed to tobacco or drink' (lit. `beware do not'). (d) If the subjects or complements introduced by ne are resumed by another subject or complement before the verb: ne I+stanbul'a ne Konya'ya, b:r yere g:tm:yor `neither to Istan- bul nor Konya, he does not go anywhere'; ne sen, ne o, :k:n:z de b:lmed:n:z `neither you nor he, both of you did not know'. (e) If the verbal element is a gerund other than -:p, -erek, or :ken : ne memlekette konuSulan d:l:, ne oranin a=detler:n: b:lmed:G:nden Cok zahmet Cekt: `because he did not know either the language spoken in the country or the customs of that place, he had a lot of trouble'; ondan ne b:r sela=m ne b:r mektup almadikCa adini b:le anmiyacaGim `so long as I do not receive from him either a greeting or a letter, I shall not mention even his name'. (f) If a number of words or a pause intervene between the second ne and the verb, so that the negative nature of the sentence needs to be reasserted: ne Sapka almak, ne de Sapkasiz gezmek--b:lhassa kiS aylarinda--:stem:yorum lit. `neither to buy a hat nor to go about hatless--especially in the winter months--I do not want'; bu sabah ne Cay, ne kahve ... :C- med:m `this morning neither tea nor coffee ... I did not drink'. 4. gerek ... gerek ... or gerek ... gerekse ... `both ... and ...': bu haber, gerek Ankara'da gerekse VaS:ngton'da fena b:r hava yaratmiStir `this news has created a bad atmo- sphere both in Ankara and in Washington'. In some contexts the translation `whether ... or ...' is possible but may be misleading, as the words introduced by gerek are not mutually exclusive, e.g. gerek ben g:dey:m, gerek s:z g:d:n, gerek o g:ts:n, :S:n sonu deG:Smez `whether I go or you go or he goes, the end of the affair will not change' (lit. `both let me go and you go and let him go ...')- 5. hem ... hem ... or hem ... hem de ...`both ... and ...': hem z:yaret hem t:caret `both pilgrimage and trade' (a pro- verbial expression, cf. our `combining business and pleasure'). A single hem or hem de means `and indeed, moreover': sicak, hem ne sicak or hem de ne sicak `it's hot, and how hot!' 6. ha ... ha ... `both ... and ...': ha baG, ha bahCe, ha tarla `both orchard and garden and field'. 7. :ster ... :ster ... `(either ...) or ...'. In origin, :ster is the aorist participle of :ste- `to want'; its use is not confined to the third person: :ster g:t, :ster kal, bana ne? `go or stay; what is it to me?'; :ster g:ts:n, :ster kalsin, bana ne? `let him go or let him stay; what is it to me?' 8. ... olsun ... olsun `both ... and ...', `whether ... or ...'. This is the third-person imperative of ol-, lit. `let it be', repeated: lokanta olsun, otel olsun, her Sey var orada `let it be restaurants, let it be hotels, there's everything there'. A single olsun means `if only', as in: yUzUnU b:r kere olsun g0rmek :st:yorum `I want to see his face, if only once' (lit. `let it be one time'); b:r dak:ka olsun :st:rahat edel:m `let us rest, if only for a minute'. 9. ya ... ya ... veya ... `either ... or ... or ...':ya ben, ya sen, veya Mehmet `either you, or I, or Mehmet'. The third choice can be introduced by ya da (occasionally written yada) or yahut (P) instead of veya. veya, yahut, and veyahut all mean `or': elma veya (or yahut or veyahut) Seftal:, ne :stersen al `apples or peaches, buy whatever you want'. yahut is decreasingly used in this sense, but is current in the sense of `or indeed', offering a total change of plan: bu akSam b:ze gel:n yahut b:z size gelel:m `come to us this evening--or let us come to you'; bu mektubu postaya ver, yahut dursun, ben kend:m g0tUrUrUm `post this letter--or let it stay, I shall take it myself'. Cf. the use of yoksa in #34. veyahut is distinctly old-fashioned. 10. ama, fakat, la=k:n `but'. All three words are Arabic in origin, but ama, being the least alien in shape and having many idiomatic uses, is the most assured of survival: sen de gel, ama gel `you come, but come!' (i.e. be sure to come). gUzel ama! is a slightly surprised `it's good, mind you!' At the end of a sentence it may convey a slight reproof: bu s0z s0ylenmez ama! `one does not say this, though!' For emphasis it reverts to its original form amma, with the second a long: amma (or amma da) yaptin ha! `now you've done it!' It is sometimes preceded, sometimes followed, by a comma; the latter if it introduces a change of subject or if for any other reason there is a slight pause after it: kiz gUzel, ama benc:l `the girl is beautiful but selfish'; yarin gelmek :st:yor ama, ben evde bulunmiyacaGim `he wants to come tomorrow but I shall not be at home'; ben de ona yardim ett:m ama, p:Sman oldum `I too helped him--but I repented '. Between simple adversative clauses, `but' need not be expressed at all (cf. ve): yalancinin ev: yanmiS, k:mse :nanmamiS (proverb) `the liar's house burned, no one believed'. The purist expression for `but' is ne var k:. 11. ancak, yalniz `only'. Both, like English `only', are orinally adverbs but also have an adversative use: ancak :k: buCuk l:ram var `I have only two and a half liras'; yalniz Sunu demek :st:yorum `I want to say only this'; kUtUphanede CaliSmam la=zim, ancak bugUn g:demem `I have to work in the library, only I cannot go today'; geld:, yalniz b:raz geC kaldi `he came, only he was a bit late'. 12. mamaf:h (maamaf:h), bununla beraber, bununla b:rl:kte `however, nevertheless'. The first is from ma`a ma** fi**h (A) `with what is in it' and the first two syllables are long, despite the modern spelling with a single a; the :, however, is short and the final h is often omitted in pronunciation. The other two equivalents mean literally `together with this'. 13. madem, mademk:, deG:l m:, deG:l m: k: `since'. The a of madem(k:) is long < ma** da**m (A) `as long as'; for the k: see #15. madem(k:) anlamiyorsun, n:C:n kariSiyorsun? `since you do not understand, why do you interfere?' deG:l m: (k:) is a provincialism now being groomed to succeed madem(k:): deG:l m: or deG:l m: k: ded:G:m: yapmadin, yUzUme bakma `since you have not done what I said, do not look at my face'. 14. meGer, meGerse `it seems that, apparently'. This introduces inferences and is consequently used with an inferential verb: ben de sen: arkadaS sanirdim; meGerse aldanmiSim `I thought you a friend; it seems I have been deceived'; meGer ne kadar sev:yormuSum bu kizi ... yanimda :ken neye anlama- miSim? `I realize how much I love this girl; why did I not understand when she was by my side?' It may end a sentence: CarSiya CikmiS meGer `he has gone to the market, apparently'. A colloquial alternative is meGerley:m. [meGerley:n?] 15. k: `that'. The importation of this Persian conjunction opened the door to the Indo-European pattern of sentence, which is in many respects the reverse of the native Turkish literary pattern: yarin geleceG:ne em:n:m `I am sure he will come tomorrow' em:n:m k: yarin gelecek geleceG: SUphes:z `it is indubitable that he will come' SUphes:z k: gelecek beklemes:n: :st:yorum `I want him him to wait' :st:yorum k: bekles:n kapiyi kapamiyan b:r Cocuk `a child who does not shut the door' b:r Cocuk k: kapiyi kapamaz In this last example, the only one from which the k: cannot be omitted, even in the roughest colloquial, k: looks like a relative pronoun. It is possible that such uses may have been helped to gain currency by the resemblance between k: and the Turkish interrogative pronoun k:m ; indeed, k:m is a very ancient alterna- tive for k:, still occasionally heard and, in the written language, surviving in n:tek:m (#17). Grammatically, however, k: is purely a conjunction. This is not a pedantic question of nomenclature but is of practical importance in translation, particularly of sentences like the following: k:razi yed:m `I ate the cherry' k: Seker g:b: not `which was like sugar' but `and found it was like sugar'. This will be clearer if we consider such uses as baktim k:, lit. `I looked that', but to be translated `I looked and saw that', `I looked and behold!': baktim k:, kapi aCik `I looked and saw that the door was open'; geld:m k:, k:mseler yok `I came and found there was no one there'; Cantami aCtim k:, bomboS `I opened my bag and found it absolutely empty'. Although the attachment of k: has become habitual in such sentences, it is not essential. Ediskun1 [EyUboGlu?] gives an example of the use of k: --b:ber: d:l:me deGd:rd:m k: zeh:r g:b: `I let the pepper touch my tongue and found it was like poison'-- which he glosses by simply putting a comma in place of the k:. k: cannot be omitted: (a) When it introduces a relative clause of the Indo-European type, with a finite verb, following the qualified word instead of the Turkish type with a participle preceding it. (b) When it introduces a noun clause which is the subject of a preceding verb: g0rUlUyor k:, bu karar haksizdir `it is evident that this decision is wrong'; anlaSiliyor k:, yen: yol haz:ran ayinda aCilacaktir `it is understood that the new road will be opened in June'. [MISSING] introductory adverbial clause such as bu sebeptend:r k: `it is for this reason that ...'. Many such expressions contain a post- position: bundan dolayidir k:, pla=n tatb:k ed:lemed: `it is on account of this that it has not been possible to apply the plan'; I+sla=m:yet:n kabul-:-yle-d:r k:, TUrk d:l: Uzer:ne b:r taraftan ArapCa, 0bUr taraftan FarsCa etk: yapmaya baSlamiStir `it is with the acceptance of Islam that Arabic on the one hand, Persian on the other, began to influence the 'Turkish language'. (c) When it links two sentences of which the first indicates the time at which the action of the second occurs: gUneS batmiSti k: k0ye vardik `the sun had set when we reached the village'; telefonu kapayarak yer:me henUz d0nmUStUm k:, kapi z:l:n:n UstUste b:rkaC kere CalindiGini duydum `putting down the telephone, I had just returned to my seat when I heard the doorbell ring several times in quick succession'. The link between k: and the preceding word is very close (in accent it is enclitic and some writers habitually put a comma after it), whereas it may be separated by a word or phrase from the clause it introduces: bu d:l kalkmali k: ortadan, baSliyab:le- l:m tUrkCe dUSUnmeGe `this language must disappear, so that we may be able to start to think in Turkish'. The writer has chosen to reverse the normal phrase for `to disappear', ortadan kalkmak, but has not displaced k: from immediately after the verb. The sentence would be complete without it, but it serves as a warning that a consequence is coming; cf. the premonitory use of eGer in XX, 8. b:r yazar d:yormuS k:, b:r derg:de geCen ay, ... `it seems a writer was saying, in a journal last month, that ...'. daha :ler: g:d:p d:yeceG:m k: s:ze ... shall go further and say to you that ...'. Parenthetic remarks are introduced by k:. eGer bu mektubu okuduysan--k: okuduGuna em:n:m--onun ne yaptiGini b:l:yorsundur `if you have read this letter--as I am sure you have--you certainly know what he is doing'. hal 0yle olsa b:le-- k: deG:l elbette--sana ne? `even if the situation were thus-- as it certainly isn't--what is it to you?' Clauses expressing consequence are introduced by k:. 0yle zayifladi k: b:r der: b:r kem:k kaldi `he grew so thin that he remained only skin and bone'. b:r baGirdi, b:r baGirdi k: yer yer:nden oynadi `he gave such a shout, such a shout that the earth started from its place'. The consequence, however, is frequently left to the imagination, as it is in English, except that the k: is retained whereas we omit the `that': 0yle zayifladi k:! `he grew so thin!' o kadar gUldUk k:! `we laughed so much!' b:r baGirdi k:! `he gave such a shout!' An intermediate stage is seen in the next example, where the three dots indicate that the expression of the thought is not going to be completed and then the writer completes it after all: o kadar sevd:m k: bu Sehr: ... oturup aGlayasim geld: (IX,9) `I loved this city so much ... I felt like sitting down and crying'. The vestigial k: is very frequent in the colloquial: Deveye `Neden boynun eGr:?' dem:Sler. `Nerem doGru k:?' dem:S `They said to the camel, ``Why is your neck crooked?'' Said he, ``What part of me is straight, that ?''' `Hang: part:dens:n:z?' `Memlekette b:rkaC part: var mi k:?` `Of which party are you?' `Are there several parties in the country that ?' The k: in both these last examples may be translated `then'. There are several other colloquial uses of k:. At the end of a question it indicates anxiety: bu borcun altindan kalkab:l:r m: k:? `can he ever rise from-under this debt?' Between repeated words it shows admiration or surprise: vapur k: vapur! `such a fine ship!' okudu k: okudu! `my goodness how he studied!' b:lmem k: means `I wonder' (not `I don't know that ...'): b:lmem k: ne yapsam? `I wonder what I should do?' b:lmem k: k:me S:ka=yet etsem? `I wonder who to complain to?' For k: with the subjunctive, see Chapter XIX. 16. meGerk: `unless' is followed by the subjunctive: Um:d:m:z yok, meGerk: hUkUmet mUdahale ets:n `we have no hope, unless the government intervene'; vapura yet:Sm:yeceks:n, meGerk: koSasin `you will not catch the steamer unless you run'. 17. n:tek:m, netek:m `just so, just as' introduces the second clause of a comparison: ben hata yaptim, n:tek:m s:z de hata yaptiniz `I made a mistake, just as you made a mistake'. Even when it begins a sentence, it refers not forward but back to the preceding sentence: DUnkU toplantida bulunmadim. N:tek:m yarink: toplantida bulunmak n:yet:nde deG:l:m `I was not at yesterday's meeting. In just the same way, I do not intend to be present at tomorrow's meeting'. The synonymous nasil k: is used in the same way, but may also introduce the first clause of a comparison, often with an 0yle `thus' in the second clause: nasil k: ben hata yaptim, s:z de 0yle hata yaptiniz `just as I made a mistake, so did you too make a mistake'. 18. halbuk:, oysa(k:) (accented on the u and o respectively) `whereas', `though'. These represent the backward- not the forward-looking `whereas' or `though', even when they begin a sentence, in which case the correct translation is `Yet' or `But': bana gUcenm:S, halbuk: aramizda b:r Sey geCt:G:n: hatirlamiyorum `I gather he is vexed with me, though I do not recall that anything has passed between us'. Halk, Cok defa softayi :deal:stle kariStirir. Oysak: softa, :deal:st:n tam ters:d:r `The people often confuse the bigot with the idealist. Yet the bigot is the exact opposite of the idealist'. 19. CUnkU, z:ra `for'. These Persian borrowings almost always begin a sentence but, like the English `for', always explain the preceding statement (cf. n:tek:m, halbuk:): D:ller:n doGuSu demek, kel:men:n doGuSu demekt:r. C+UnkU, her d:l:n en kUCUk b:rl:G: kel:me'd:r `The origin of languages means the origin of the word (``to say `the origin oflanguages'is to say ...''). For the smallest unit of every language is the word'. `la=k:n' baGlaci, Esk: TUrkCede yoktur; CUnkU ArapCa asillidir `the conjunction la=k:n does not exist in Old Turkish, because it is of Arabic origin'. z:ra could replace CUnkU in these examples, but is not much used. The spelling CUnk: for CUnkU is not recommended. 20. demek `it means': Sene yil demekt:r. Senev: de yillik demek olacak `Sene means ``year''. So senev: will mean (``will be to say'') ``annual''' (senev: < sanawi** (A)). A fuller form of the expression is seen in the first example of the preceding section and in: demokras: demek adalet demek- t:r `to say ``democracy'' is to say ``justice'''. At the beginning of a clause demek, demek k:, or demek oluyor k: (`it becomes to say') signifies `that is to say': dUSUnU- yorum, demek k: varim `I think, that is to say, I exist'. demek alone can be used when seeking corroboration of an impression: paraniz yok demek? `so you have no money?' demek o da gel:yor? `that means he is coming too?' 21. d:Ger taraftan (P, A) and 0te yandan, lit. `from the other side', are not as adversative as they look; `moreover' or `at the same time' is usually the best rendering, not `on the other hand'. 22. gerC: (P) `it is true that': gerC: pek sev:ml: deG:l, ama gayet :y: b:r arkadaStir `it is true he is not very attractive, but he is a very good friend'. 23 gu=ya (P) `allegedly, forsooth'; usually pronounced and some- times written g0ya. For an example see XXIV , 12. 24. han:, an old word for `where?', has several idiomatic uses. It may be reinforced by ya, written together with it or as a separate word. (a) It asks the whereabouts of someone or something expected but not in evidence, or lost and unattainable: han:ya arkadaSiniz, gelmed: m:? `where is your friend; hasn't he come?' han: o gUnler! `where are those days!' (b) It draws attention to a failure to carry out a promise: han: ya bana b:r hed:ye get:recekt:n? `I thought you were going to bring me a present?' (c) `You know' covers most other uses: han: bUronuzda esmer Cocuk var ya, :Ste o s:z: ariyor `you know there's the dark boy in your office; well it's he who is looking for you' (for :Ste see #28); han: yanliS da deG:l `and it's not wrong, you know'. (d) A parenthetic han: yok mu lends weight to the following words: bu problem: C0zmek :C:n, han: yok mu, tam UC gUn CaliStim `to solve this problem, would you believe it, I worked exactly three days'. han:d:r onu g0rmUyorum `I haven't seen her for ages'. 25. hele `above all, at any rate'; with an imperative, `just': hele s:z bunu s0ylememel: :d:n:z `you above all should not have said this'; hele :nsan kaybi yokmuS `at any rate there is no loss of life reported' (`there-is-said-to-be-no human-loss'); Suna bak hele `just look at that!'; Cocuk sinifini geCmes:n hele, d0Ger:m onu `just let the child not pass up (``let-him-not-pass his-class''), I'll give him a good hiding'. A doubled hele hele is hortatory: hele hele s0yle daha neler olmuS `come on then, tell what else happened !' 26. herhalde `certainly, surely'. The literal translation is `in every case', but this gives a misleading idea of the use. In the first two examples it indicates a strong supposition: herhalde b:l:yorsunuz `you surely know'; gazetede okumuSsunuzdur herhalde `you have certainly read in the newspaper'. :ster darilsin, :ster darilmasin, herhalde hakkimi :st:yeceG:m `let him get cross or not, as he chooses, I shall certainly ask for my due'. 27. :se (`if it is') and its suffixed forms (VIII, 8) draw attention to the preceding word and may be translated `as for', `whereas', `however' according to context: ben :se (bense) patates h:C yem:yorum `as for me, I don't eat potatoes at all'; lit. `if it is I ...'; babasi I+ng:l:z, annes: :se (annes:yse) Amer:kali `his father is English, whereas his mother is American'. The word before :se may be in whatever case the syntax of the rest of the sentence demands: kend:s: pek hoS, ses:n: :se h:C sevmem `he himself is very pleasant; his voice, however, I don't like at all'. Here ses:n: is accusative, object of sevmem. For :se following the genitive, see the fifth example in XVI, 6. 28. :Ste `behold !' `there !' `precisely': han: ben:m kalem?-- :Ste! `where is my pen?'--`there!'; :Ste otobUs geld: `there, the bus has arrived'; :Ste bu sebepten dolayi ona oy vermed:m `precisely for this reason I did not vote for him'. 29. sakin. ln origin it is the imperative of sakinmak `to be cautious'. As an interjection, sakin or sakin ha means `beware! don't do it!' It is also used with a negative imperative: sakin dUSme! `mind you don't fall!' With the periphrastic perfect tense of the negative imperative it expresses anxiety: sakin unutmuS olmayin `I do hope you have not forgotten' (`do-not-be having-forgotten'). A question- mark may emphasize the doubt in the speaker's mind: s0yle- d:kler:m: sakin unutmuS olmasin? `I do hope he hasn't forgotten what I said?' 30. sank: `as if' (lit. `suppose that') is usually construed with g:b: following an inferential verb or a tense-base, or with an inferential verb alone: sank: dUnyada baSka b:r kadin yokmuS g:b: hep AySe'y: dUSUnUyor `as if there were no other woman in the world, he thinks entirely of Ayesha'; sank: b:lm:yor g:b:s:n:z! `as if you didn't know !'; sank: kabahat ben:mm:S! `as if the fault were mine!' In a question it conveys an argumentative or scornful `do you think?': ablaniza Cok UzUntU verd:n:z de :y: m: ett:n:z sank:? `you have greatly upset your sister and have you done well, do you think?' Otherwise it is to be translated `it is as if': mak:ne sabah akSam CocuGa el:n:n ve kafasinin gUcUnU hesaplatiyor; sank: ona ``Ben:mle yapacaGin her :Sten sen sorumlusun, ben kariSmam'' d:yor `the machine all day long makes the child take account of the power of his hand and head; it is as if it says to him ``For every job which you are going to do with me, you are responsible; I do not interfere'''. 31. S0yle dursun (lit. `let it stand thus'), with an infinitive as subject, means `let alone ..., never mind about ...'. radyoda d:nled:G:m:z Sarkilarin CoGu m:lli= olmak S0yle dursun mus:k: b:le deG:ld:r `most of the songs we listen to on the radio are not even music, let alone national'. tercUmanlik yapmak S0yle dursun, kend: l:sanini b:le b:lmez `never mind about acting as interpreter, he doesn't even know his own language'. 32. ya has a wide variety of functions in the colloquial, e.g. at the end of rhetorical questions: her akSam s:nemaya g:d:l:r m: ya? `does one go to the cinema every evening?' In the sense of `you know', `isn't that so?': bugUn n:ye okula g:tmed:n?--pazar ya! `why haven't you gone to school today?' --`it's Sunday, you know!' k0Sede kUCUk b:r dUkka=n var ya, :Ste orada aldim `you know there's a little shop on the corner; well I bought there'. In the sense of `yes indeed' the a is pronounced long: s:ze Cay verey:m m:?--ya, ver `may I give you tea?-- `yes, do'. At the beginning of a clause it means `and what about ...?'; this is the use most likely to be found in the written language: bu kadar yet:S:r, d:yorsun, ya yet:Smezse? `this much will be enough, you say; and what if it isn't enough?' A versified slogan of the 1960 revolution ran: Gerek:rse / O+lUrUz / B:z. / Ya s:z? `If necessary / We are ready to die, / We. / And you?' 33. yok is used colloquially for `no' in reply not only to questions containing var mi or yok mu (VIII, 45): g:d:yor musun?-- yok `are you going?'--`no'. In this sense it is often pronounced without the k and with the vowel lengthened, and may be pho- netically spelled yooo ! When retailing an unlikely story, a sarcastic yok may preface each clause: yok ka=Gidi kalmamiS, yok mUrekkeb: :y: deG:lm:S, hasili b:r alay bahaneler `oh no he had no paper left, oh no his ink was no good; in short, a host of excuses'. 34. yoksa `if not, otherwise': uslu durursun, yoksa sen: b:r daha buraya get:rmem `you'll stand nice-and-quiet, otherwise I shan't bring you here again'. It then comes to be used to introduce the second half of double questions: bu mUmkUn mU yoksa deG:l m:? `is this possible, or is it not?'; bugUn mU yoksa yarin mi g:d:yorsunuz? `is it today or tomorrow you are going?' When two possibilities are considered but only one is expressed, yoksa may begin the sentence: yoksa g:tsem m:? `or should I go?' XIV. WORD-FORMATION 1. Deverbal substantives. In sections 2-18 are discussed the principal suffixes which are added to verb-stems to make nouns and adjectives, excluding those dealt with under the headings of participles and verbal nouns in Chapters IX and X. These suffixes have been and are the chief weapons of the language-reformers in their campaign to substitute words from Turkish roots for Arabic and Persian borrowings. 2. [MISSING: -:c:] ak- to flow akici fluent oku- to read oku-y-ucu reader gUl-dUr- to make to laugh gUldUrUcU amusing uyuS-tur- to benumb uyuSturucu narcotic et- to make sarhoS ed:c: intoxicant (`drunk making') 0l-dUr- to kill haSarat 0ldU-rUcU :la=C insecticide (`insect killer medicament') d0n-dUr- to turn baS d0ndUrUcU hiz vertiginous (`head turning') speed ver- to give hayat ver:c: life-giving The first vowel of the suffix has been lost in d:lenc: `beggar' from d:len- `to beg'. 0Grenc: `student, pupil' was manufactured analogously from 0Gren- `to learn'. 3. -men. A suffix -man occurs in a number of time-honoured words, apparently with intensive significance; e.g. from koca `big', kocaman `huge'; from S:S `swollen', S:Sman `fat'. The language-reformers have used -men to make nouns of occupation: 0Gret- to teach 0Gretmen teacher oku-t- to make to read okutman lector say- to count sayman accountant seC- to choose seCmen elector yaz- to write yazman secretary In this use the suffix is a hybrid, deriving, on the one hand, from the Turkish -man and, on the other, from the English -man, familiar to the Turks in three borrowings from French: vatman `tram-driver', sportmen `sportsman', and rekortmen `record- holder'. The last two may have come via Russian. egemen `sovereign' purports to be derived from ege or eGe `guardian'. In fact it is a distortion of the Greek `leader'; the French he=*ge=*mie was borrowed in the form hegemonya by Ziya G0kalp (d. 1924). 4. -:k makes adjectives, mostly with passive meaning, and nouns, mostly denoting the result of action: b:rleS- to unite b:rleS:k united boz- to destroy bozuk unserviceable, spoilt Cik- to come out Cikik dislocated deG:S- to change deG:S:k varied 0ksUr- to cough 0ksUrUk cough s0k- to undo s0kUk unravelled tUkUr- to spit tUkUrUk saliva 5. -: denotes action or result of action. It occurs only with mono- syllabic consonant-stems: dol- to be filled dolu full kork- to run korku fear koS- to run koSu race 0l- to die 0lU dead, corpse yap- to make yapi construction 6. -t:, -:nt:. (a) -t: denotes action or result of action: bel:r- to appear bel:rt: symptom buyur-ul- to be ordered buy(u)rultu command bula-n- to be nauseated bulanti nausea Calka-n- to be agitated Calkanti agitation (b) Analogously with the last two examples, there are a number of nouns ending in -:n-t: from verbs with no reflexive in use, e.g.; ak- to flow akinti stream bur- to twist buruntu colic Cik- to come out Cikinti projection C0k- to collapse C0kUntU debris kur- to brood kuruntu melancholy fancy [??] 7. [MISSING: -g:] sev- to love sevg: affection :C- to drink :Ck: (alcoholic) drink Cal- to play Calgi musical instrument as- to hang aski pendant, braces (U. K.), suspenders (U.S.A.) bur- to twist burgu gimlet 0r- to interlace 0rgU plait yar- to split yargi decision 8. -C makes adjectives and abstract nouns, primarily from re- flexive stems and other stems in n: :Gren- to be disgusted :GrenC loathsome, loathing :nan- to believe :nanC belief kazan- to win kazanC gain kiskan- to envy kiskanC jealousy usan- to be bored usanC boredom By analogy, korkunC `terrible' is formed from kork- `to fear', although this verb has no reflexive. 9. [MISSING: -ek] yala to lick yalak trough bat- to sink batak marsh ele- to sift elek sieve tara- to comb tarak comb 0lC- to measure 0lCek scale of a map yed- to tow yedek tow-rope > led animal > spare aksa- to limp aksak lame bUyU- to become great bUyUk great soGu- to become cold soGuk cold Urk- to shy Urkek timid From at- `to throw' comes atak `bold, daring', not to be con- fused with the identical-looking noun meaning `attack', a French borrowing used by sports-writers and military experts. 10. [-gen] Cek:n- to withdraw Cek:ngen retiring d0GUS- to fight d0GUSken bellicose sokul- to push oneself in sokulgan ingratiating unut- to forget unutkan forgetful A rare by-form is -eGen: ol- to happen olaGan normal p:S- to cook (intr.) p:SeGen easily cooking gez- to stroll gezeGen planet 11. -g:n makes nouns and adjectives with active or passive meaning: er- to mature erg:n adult kiz- to become heated kizgin fevered sol- to fade solgun faded sUr- to exile sUrgUn exile b:t- to end b:tk:n exhausted kUs- to sulk kUskUn sulky SaS- to go astray SaSkin bewildered coS- to overflow coSkun exuberant geCk:n `past' and aSkin `exceeding' may govern an object: elli yaSini geCk:n b:r adam `a man past his fiftieth year'; boyu, :k: metrey: aSkindi `his height was over two metres'. 12. -:t, -t (the latter after vowel-stems). This noun-suffix, though not very productive in former times, is a favourite of the neo- logizers; witness the last five examples: ayir- to distinguish ayirt distinction geC- to pass geC:t passage, ford yoGur- to knead yoGurt yoghurt an- to call to mind anit memorial soy- to strip soyut abstract taSi- to carry taSit vehicle yak- to burn yakit fuel yaz- to write yazit inscription It occurs also in a few adjectives deliberately derived from substantives: yaS age yaSit coeval eS mate eS:t equal karSi opposite karSit contrary An analogous recent coinage is somut, from som `solid', for `concrete', as opposed to soyut `abstract'. 13. -:m makes nouns, many of them denoting a single action, This too is an abundant source of neologisms, e.g. basim and the three following examples on the next page. :C- to drinK :c:m draught yut- to swallow yudum swallow, mouthful d:l to slice d:l:m slice, strip doG- to be born doGum birth 0l- to die 0lUm death tut- to hold tutum thrift, behaviour The noun of unity tut- is irregular: tutam `handful'. bas- to press,print basim printing de- to say dey:m expression dur- to stand durum situation yat-ir- to lay, deposit yatirim investment See also XII, 1; sUrUm sUrUm, etc. Examples of deverbal nouns in -m from vowel-stems are few, but the reformers have created some on the analogy of anlam, alleged to be used in Konya in the sense of `meaning'; cf. anla- `to understand'. g0zle- to observe g0zlem observation kavra- to grasp kavram concept The same dubious suffix is seen in the neologism gUndem `agenda' from gUnde `in the day'. 14. -:n makes nouns: ak- to flow akin stream, rush, raid ek- to sow ek:n crop tUt- to smoke (intr.) tUtUn tobacco yiG- to pile up yiGin heap bas- to press, print basin the Press 15. -geC, -g:C. These two related suffixes make a few nouns, mostly denoting agent or instrument: dal- to plunge dalgiC diver sUz- to filter sUzgeC filter, strainer yUz- to swim yUzgeC swimmer, float baSla- to begin baSla-n-giC beginning patla- to explode patla-n-gaC, patla-n-giC pop-gun, fire-cracker 16. -tay. This neologism seems to have been extracted from the Mongol quriltai `assembly of the nobles', as if the word were derived from the Turkish kur-ul- `to be established' -*-tay. kurultay is the name given by the Turkish Linguistic Society to its annual congress. The `suffix' has been used (with substantives as well as with verb-stems) to create a number of administrative terms, all of which, except the first, are often used in official language. The older terms are given in brackets. kamu (archaic) all, whole Kamutay Grand National Assembly (BUyUk M:llet Mecl:s:) daniS- to consult DaniStay Council of State (S+ura-yi Devlet, Devlet S+urasi) sayiS- to settle accounts SayiStay Exchequer and Audit (D:van-i Muhasebat, Muhasebat D:vani) yargi decision Yargitay Supreme Court of Appeal (Temy:z Mahkemes:) 17. -ev, -v. This was borrowed by the neologizers from the Kazan dialect. g0r- to see, perform g0rev duty sayla- to choose saylav deputy, M.P. sina- to test sinav examination s0yle- to tell s0ylev speech 18. -ey, -y. This suffix, of Chaghatai origin, is also beloved of the neologizers. dene- to try deney experiment d:k- to set up d:key perpendicular ol- to happen olay event yat- to lie yatay horizontal It is rarely added to nouns: yUz- face dUzey surface 19. Denominal verbs. Relatively few substantives are also verb- stems; among the commonist are: aci grief aci- to grieve (intr.) boya paint boya- to paint ekS: sour ekS:- to become sour esk: old esk:- to become worn out gerek necessary gerek- to be necessary g0C migration g0C- to migrate kuru dry kuru- to dry (intr-) On the other hand, many verbs are formed by adding suffixes to substantives. These suffixes are discussed in ##20-29. 20. [MISSING: -e] boS empty boSa- to divorce harC expenditure harca- to spend kan blood kana- to bleed oyun game oyna- to play yaS age yaSa- to live 21. -le-. This, with its derivatives (##22-24), is the most pro- ductive of all verbal suffixes. The precise relationship between the meanings of the basic substantive and the derived verb is not always guessable; compare the last two examples in list (a). It is added to: (a) Nouns: balta axe baltala- to sabotage g0z eye g0zle- to keep an eye on k:l:t lock k:l:tle- to lock k:r dirt k:rle- to dirty su water sula- to irrigate yumurta egg yumurtala- to lay eggs kuzu lamb kuzula- to lamb k0pek dog k0pekle- to cringe (b) Adjectives: kUCUk small kUCUkle- to slight ser:n cool ser:nle- to become cool tem:z clean tem:zle- to clean UC three UCle- to increase to three, to let a farm in ex- change for one-third of the crop (c) Onomatopoeic words: hav hav bow-wow havla- to bark m:yav miaow m:yavla- to mew pUf puff pUfle- to puff, blow out 22. -len-. In origin the reflexive and passive of -le-, it also makes some verbs synonymous with those in -le-, and some of which there is no -le- form in use: tem:zle- to clean tem:zlen- to be cleaned k:rle- to dirty k:rlen- to become dirty ser:nle- to become cool ser:nlen- to become cool can soul,life canlan- to come to life ev house evlen- to marry Its causative is -len-d:r-: canlandir- `to vivify', evlend:r- `to give in marriage'. 23. -let-. The causative of -le-. Some verbs formed with it are synonymous with the forms in -le-: tem:zle- to clean tem:zlet- to get cleaned k:l:tle- to lock k:l:tlet- to get locked k:rle- to dirty k:rlet- to dirty 24. -leS-. Originally the reciprocal of -le-, it is also freely used to make verbs meaning `to become ...': karSila- to meet karSilaS- to meet one another ser:n cool ser:nleS- to become cool dert pain, trouble dertleS- to tell each other your troubles mektup letter mektuplaS- to correspond Tanri God tanrilaS- to become divine 0lmez (IX,4) immortal 0lmezleS- to become immortal Amer:ka-li American amer:kalilaS- to be Americanized garp-li westerner garplilaS- to be westernized b:r one b:rleS- to become united Its causative is -leS-t:r-: 0lmezleSt:r- `to immortalize', garplilaStir- `to westernize', b:rleSt:r- `to unite'. 25. -el-, -l-. Added to a number of adjectives, but very few nouns, it conveys `to become ...'. Disyllables in final k lose it before this suffix: az little azal- to diminish (intr-) Cok much CoGal- to increase (intr.) boS empty boSal- to be emptied s:vr: sharp-pointed s:vr:l- to become prominent alCak low alCal- to condescend ufak tiny ufal- to diminish (intr.) yUksek high yUksel- to rise y0n direction y0nel- to direct oneself The causative is -elt-, -lt-: azalt- `to diminish' (tr.), yUkselt- `to raise'. 26. -er-. No longer productive, with adjectives of colour it con- veys `to become ...'; added to other words it usually has an active sense. Disyllabic adjectives of colour lose their final syllable before it; more accurately, -er- is added to the monosyllabic stem from which the disyllabic adjective is derived: ak white aGar- to become white boz grey bozar- to become grey g0k blue green g0Ger- or to become blue green g0ver- (I, 10) yeS:l green yeSer- to become green kizil red kizar- to become red, be roasted sari yellow sarar- to become yellow ev house ever- to marry off ot grass otar- to pasture su water suvar- (p. 29) to water an animal yaS moisture yaSar- to become wet 27. -se-. This was once not uncommon in the sense of `to want ...', e.g. in tUtUnse- `to crave tobacco'. The only surviving example in common use is: su water susa- to thirst In a few words it has the sense of`to regard as . . :': ben:m of me ben:mse- to regard as one's own mUh:m important mUh:mse- to think important C:rk:n ugly C:rk:nse- to think ugly gar:p stranger gar:pse- to consider strange, to feel lonely 28. -:mse-. A suffix -:mse- with the same meaning appears in: az little azimsa- to consider inadequate Cok much CoGumsa- to consider excessive In the postvocalic form -mse- it is used to make two neologisms: :y: good :y:mse- to be optimistic k0tU bad k0tUmse- to be pessimistic The aorist participles :y:mser and k0tUmser are commonly used for `optimistic' and `pessimistic' respectively. Different in sense and in being formed from a verb-stem is gUlUmse- `to smile'; cf. gUl- `to laugh'. This -:mse- may have been formed on the analogy of ben:m-se- and mUh:m-se- but is more likely related to the adjectival suffix -:ms: (IV, 3). 29. -de- is added to a number of onomatopoeic words ending in r or l which, when repeated, are used as adverbs. For example, cizir imitates the sound of sizzling; `sizzlingly' is cizir cizir, while cizirdamak is to make this noise. Such verbs in -de- have a corresponding noun in -d: or -t:, thus cizirti`sizzling'. There is also a verb ciz-la-mak `to sizzle'. A series like this exists for many onomatopoeic words, though in some the verb in -le- is wanting. Where there is a verb in -le-, it is used with the doubled adverb in preference to the verb in -de-. Thus `to snore snortingly' is horul horul horlamak rather than horuldamak. Imitative Word Represents Verb Noun Verb gicir creaking gicirda- gicirti -- hiril growling hirilda- hirilti hirla- horul snoring horulda- horultu horla- kUtUr crunching kUtUrde- kUtUrdU -- patir footsteps patirda- patirdi -- paril glittering parilda- parilti parla- piril " pirilda- pirilti -- takir tapping takirda- takirti -- 30. Compound nouns and adjectives. The various ways in which these may be formed are dealt with in this and the following sections. Two nouns juxtaposed: baba father anne mother babaanne paternal grandmother anneanne maternal grandmother kayin brother- ata father kaynata father-in-law in-law ana mother kaynana mother-in-law baS head bakan minister baSbakan prime minister CavuS sergeant baSCavuS sergeant-major parmak finger baSparmak thumb :C interior yUz face :CyUz `the inside story' kale fort :Ckale citadel orta middle CaG epoch ortaCaG the Middle Ages okul school ortaokul intermediate school g0z eye kulak ear g0zkulak alert, interested aGa chief bey lord aGabey elder brother hanim lady efend: master hanimefend: Madam beyefend: Sir yUz face g0z eye yUzg0z over-familiar 0n front ayak foot 0nayak pioneer, ringleader s0z word 0ns0z foreword yargi judgement 0nyargi prejudice 31. Abbreviated nouns. Some military terms have been formed on the pattern of Russian officialese, from abbreviated nouns: tUmen division general general tUmgeneral major-general ordu army orgeneral general (4-star) donatim equipment ordonat equipment branch Ust top teGmen 2nd Ustegmen 1st lieutenant lieutenant 32. Izafet groups: yil year baS head yilbaSi New Year el hand b:rl:k oneness elb:rl:G: co-operation :C interior aci pain :Cler acisi heart-rending hanim lady el hand hanimel: honeysuckle saman straw yol way samanyolu the Milky Way cuma Friday erte morrow cumartes: Saturday tar:h history 0nce before tar:h 0nces: prehistoric m:lletler nations ara interval m:lletlerarasi international harp war sonra after harp sonrasi post-war su water Ust top suUstU surface (adj.) 33. Frozen izafet groups. The following words, though izafet groups in origin, are treated like simple vowel-stems (cf. II, 24). Thus den:zaltilar `submarines', b:nbaSiya `to the major', ayakkabici `shoemaker'. den:z sea alt underside den:zalti submarine (noun and adj.) b:n thousand baS head b:nbaSi major yUz hundred yUzbaSi captain on ten onbaSi corporal ayak foot kap cover ayakkabi footwear, shoes 34. Proper names consisting in izafet groups. Patronymics in -oGlu are strictly declined as izafet groups: OsmanoGullari `the Ottoman dynasty', KaramanoGluna `to the karamanid'. Colloquially, however, surnames of this type are sometimes treated as simple vowel-stems; thus `to AzizoGlu', strictly Az:z- oGluna or Az:zoGlu'na, may occur as Az:zoGlu'ya. I+n0nU as a place-name is declined as an izafet group; as a sur- name (derived from the place-name) it is declined as a simple noun. Either way it may be written with or without an apostrophe before the case-endings: Place-name Surname abs. I+n0nU acc. I+n0nU'nU I+n0nU'yU gen. I+n0nU 'nUn dat. I+n0nU'ne I+n0nU'ye loc. I+n0nU'nde I+n0nU'de abl. I+n0nU'nden I+n0nU'den 35. Adjective-noun: bUyUk great anne mother bUyUkanne grandmother kara black yel wind karayel north-wester top-lu knobbed :Gne needle toplu:Gne pin kirk forty ayak foot kirkayak centipede 36. Noun-noun--l: : c:n demon f:k:r thought c:nf:k:rl: shrewd koyun sheep baS head koyunbaSli mutton-headed orta middle boy stature ortaboylu of medium height 37. [MISSING: Adj-noun-l: ?] aC hungry g0z eye aCg0zlU avaricious alCak low g0nUl soul alCakg0nUllU humble del: mad kan blood del:kanli young man :k: two can soul :k:canli pregnant 38. Noun-adjective: sUt milk beyaz white sUtbeyaz milk-white k0mUr coal s:yah black k0mUrs:yah coal-black 39. Noun-third-person suffix-adjective: el-: his hand aCik open el:aCik generous See XVIII, 1. 40. Noun-verb: kUl ash basti it pressed kUlbasti grilled meat dal branch dalbasti fine and large (of cherries) unutma do not forget ben: me unutmaben: forget-me-not To this class belong the names of two dishes made with auber- gines: hUnka=rbeGend: `the Sovereign approved' and :mam- bayildi `the Imam swooned'. The verb may be a participle: kervan caravan kiran breaking kervankiran the morning oyun game bozan spoiling oyunbozan spoilsport yurt land sever loving yurtsever patriot 41. [MISSING] Cit crack! kirildim I have been Citkirildim fragile, broken effeminate Sip plop ! sevd: he has fallen Sipsevd: susceptible, in love impressionable 42. Verb-verb: Cakar it strikes almaz it does not Cakaralmaz useless, not fire take working; facetious term for gun, `blunderbuss' kapti it snatched kaCti it fled kaptikaCti small, privately owned omnibus, `pirate bus' vurdum I hit duymaz he does vurdumduymaz thick- skinned not feel 43. Hyphenated compounds. The hyphen is hardly ever used in compound words, except in one or two modernisms like okur- yazar `literate' (`reader--writer') and akt0r-rej:s0r `actor-- producer', phrases like Ankara-Konya yolu `the Ankara-Konya road' and 0Gretmen-0Grenc: orani `teacher-pupil ratio', and names of commercial firms like I+pek-I+S `Silk-Work'. Some of the compounds shown above as one word may be spelt as two, and vice versa. 44. Repetitions. As in English, a verb may be repeated to indicate the duration of activity: CaliSacaksin, CaliSacaksin ve muvaf- fak olacaksin `you will work, you will work, and you will be successful'. Similar locutions are frequent in the colloquial: kalalim kalalim akSama kadar kalalim, sonra? `all right, suppose we stay till evening; what do we do then?' (lit. `let us stay, let us stay, till evening let us stay; after?'). arabayi sUrmUS, sUrmUS, n:hayet yet:St: `he drove and drove the car and finally arrived'. If the object of the repeated verb is also repeated, inversion is automatic: sUrmUS arabayi, sUrmUS arabayi, n:hayet yet:St:. yapacaGim da yapacaGim `I'll certainly do it' (`I shall do and I shall do'). g:tt: m: g:tt:! `I'll say he went !' (`did he go? he went!'). This last construction is found with adjectives too: :ht:yar zeng:n m: zeng:n! `the old man is certainly rich' (`... rich? rich !'). When repeated adjectives qualify nouns in the plural, the sense is more than simply intensive; e.g. gUzel gUzel kizlar means not just `very beautiful girls' but `girls each more beautiful than the last'; yen: yen: Um:tler are not `very new hopes' but `ever-new hopes'. Repeated nouns: avuC avuC paralar `coins by the handful'; araba araba odun `cartload after cartload of wood'; sira sira daGlar `range on range of mountains'; demet demet otlar `bundles and bundles of grass'; kUme kUme evler `masses and masses of houses'. A once-popular song begins: Ey m:ralay, m:ralay! / Asker:n alay alay `O Colonel, Colonel! / Your soldiers are regiment on regiment'. 45. Doublets. On almost every page of the dictionary will be found nouns and adjectives consisting in pairs of assonant words. Such doublets are of three kinds. (a) Each element is a regular word: :S gUC employment (`work toil') kanli canli robust (`having blood and life') yorgun argun dead-tired (`tired exhausted') yorgun argun [??] jerrybuilt (`collection fitting-together) (b) Only one element is a regular word, the other exists only in this doublet: Cocuk child Coluk Cocuk wife and family siki close siki fiki intimate Carpik crooked Carpik Curpuk crooked and twisted alaca motley alaca bulaca garish and discordant of colour (c) Neither element has independent existence: allak bullak topsy-turvy abuk sabuk nonsensical ivir zivir miscellaneous rubbish 46. m- doublets. The largest class of doublet is that in which a word is followed by an echo of itself but with m replacing its initial consonant or preceding its initial vowel. The meaning of this form beginning with m is `and so on, and suchlike'. derg: okumuyor `he doesn't read journals'; derg: merg: okumuyor `he doesn't read journals or periodicals or magazines'. bahCede aGaC yok `there are no trees in the garden'; bahCede aGaC maGaC yok `there are no trees or shrubs or bushes in the garden'. It must be emphasized that it is useless to seek such words as merg: and maGaC in the dictionary; they are manufactured ad hoc.` part:ler, mart:ler, hep reform meform d:ye baGirip CaGiriyorlar `the political parties and suchlike are always shouting and screaming about reform and all that'. :S:n sonunu anlat--sonu monu yok `tell the end of the business'--`it has no end or anything resembling an end'. A rough equivalent of `but me no buts' is fakati makati yok, lit. `it has no ``but'' (fakat) or anything like a ``but'' (makat)'. The late Prime Minister Menderes, on hearing that Harold Stassen was retiring as administrator of United States foreign aid, remarked: Stassen g:derse, yer:ne Mtassen gel:r. Yardimi ondan aliriz `If Stassen goes, some close facsimile of Stassen will take his place. We'll get the aid from him.' A Turkish workman who had married a German girl, when asked how they managed to communicate, replied: Tarzanca marzanca :dare ed:yoruz :Ste `We manage in the manner (or `language'; see XII, 2 (e)) of Tarzan and his mate Jane, that's how it is'. It will be seen that this is essentially a colloquialism; for a neat literary use of it see XXIV, 14. An ingenious political use was made of it before the 1960 revolution, when the opposition weekly Kim was suspended but immediately reappeared under the title of Mim. Besides meaning, in this context, `something closely resembling Kim', this is the name of the Arabic letter m which was used by the Ottoman bureaucracy as a `black mark', to put against the names of those politically suspect. Hence m:ml:, still current for `on the black list'. This device is possible only because of the lack of native Turkish words with initial m. With words which do begin with m, m-doublets cannot be made and falan or f:la=n (V, 21) is used instead: mUfett:Sler falan gel:yor `the inspectors and all that lot are coming'. XV. THE ORDER OF ELEMENTS IN THE SENTENCE 1. Nominal sentences and verbal sentences. Turkish grammarians classify all sentences as either nominal or verbal, the former being those in which the verbal element, if any, is one of the parts of `to be' not formed from the stem ol-; the latter, those in which the verbal element is from ol- or any other normal stem. Thus these are nominal sentences: hava gUzel(d:r) the weather is fine yorgun deG:l:m I am not tired yUzU tem:z :d: his face was clean ev Cok ucuz :m:S the house is said to be very cheap bekl:yordur he is sure to be waiting These are verbal sentences: hava gUzel oldu the weather has become fine yorulmadim I have not become fatigued yUzUnU yikadi he has washed his face ev satilmiS the house appears to have been sold bekl:yor he is waiting The distinction, however, has no practical value; the weight given to it by Turkish schoolteachers is a relic of the days when Turkish grammar was taught with the technical terms of Arabic, in which the distinction is of fundamental importance. 2. The principles of word-order. The cardinal rule is that the qualifier precedes the qualified; i.e. the adjective, participle, or qualifying noun precedes the noun; the adverb or complement precedes the verb; the modifying phrase or adverb precedes the adjective: bUyUk ev the big house d0nen tekerlek the turning wheel C:ftC:n:n ev: the farmer's house Cabuk geld: he came quickly Cabuk ol be quick! buraya geld: he came here buradan uzak far from here H:nd:stan kadar bUyUk b:r memleket a land as big as India H:nd:stan'dan bUyUk b:r memleket a land bigger than India pek kUCUk b:r bahCe a very small garden To leave aside, for the moment, the flexibility given to the written word by writers of the devr:k cUmle school (see #3), the typical order of the elements in a literary sentence is-- (1) subject, (2) expression of time, (3) expression of place, (4) indirect object, (5) direct object, (6) modifier of the verb, (7) verb. If any of these elements is qualified, the qualifier precedes it. The definite precedes the indefinite, so elements (4) and (5) will change places if the indirect object is indefinite and the direct object is definite. Thus CocuGa h:ka=yey: anlatti `she told the child the story', but h:ka=yey: b:r CocuGa anlatti `she told the story to a child'. By `modifier of the verb' in position (6) is meant what Turkish grammarians call tUmleC `complement'. This may be: (a) a noun in the dative, locative, or ablative case: ves:kalari Ankara'ya yolluyorum `I am sending the documents to Ankara'; m:saf:r otelde bekl:yor `the guest is waiting in the hotel'; onu penceremden g0rdUm `I saw him from my window'. (b) an adverb or the equivalent: diSari Cikalim `let us go out- side'; b:z:m kadar CaliSmiyor `he is not working as much as we are'. (c) a particle: evet, gel:r:m `yes, I am coming'; hayir, gel- mem `no, I am not coming'. An example of the typical word-order-- (1) ressam (2) geCen hafta (3) Bebek'te (4) b:ze (5) res:mler:n: (6) :k:nc: defa olarak (7) g0sterd:; i.e. (1) the artist (7) showed (4) us (5) his pictures (6) for the second time (2) last week (3) at Bebek. The definite precedes the indefinite, so, if he showed his pictures not to us but to a journalist, elements (4) and (5) will change places: res:mler:n: b:r gazetec:ye g0sterd:. Any element which is to be emphasized may be placed immediately before the verb: geCen hafta Bebek'te b:ze res:mler:n: ressam g0sterd: `it was the artist who showed us ...'; ressam Bebek'te b:ze res:mler:n: geCen hafta g0sterd: `it was last week that the artist showed us ...'; ressam geCen hafta b:ze res:mler:n: Bebek'te g0sterd: `it was at Bebek that the artist showed us ...'. If the verb is intransitive, elements (4) and (5) are replaced by the complement or modifier of the verb: (1) kiz kardeS:m (2) S:md: (3) Par:s'te (4) trenden (5) :n:yordur; (1) my sister (5) must be alighting (2) now (4) from the train (3) in Paris. (1) :k: sarhoS (2) dUn akSam (3) Taks:m'de (4) karakolluk (5) oldular ; (1) two drunkards (5) became (4) police-station-material (2) yesterday evening (3) at Taksim (i.e. they were locked up). The subject of var and yok adjoins them as a rule: daGda b:r ayi var or b:r ayi var daGda `there is a bear on the moun- tain'; evde k:mse yok or k:mse yok evde `there is no one in the house'. It will not escape the reader's attention that such `typical' sentences are relatively infrequent among the enormous variety that can occur in human speech, especially in its written form. Nevertheless, although not every sentence will have all these elements, the order given above will be found to fit not only most sentences but also most clauses within the sentence. 3. The inverted sentence, devr:k cUmle. In English, which has discarded most of its inflexions, the rules of word-order must be obeyed or the syntactic relationships of the various parts of the sentence will be upset. In an inflected language like Turkish or Latin one can take liberties with the conventional word-order and still be intelligible. Romalilar, barbarlari yend:ler Romani barbaros superaverunt The Romans defeated the barbarians Let the Romans and the barbarians change places in the Turkish or Latin sentences and the basic implication remains the same, though there is a shift of emphasis (`it was the Romans who defeated the barbarians'). If they change places in the English, the sense is totally reversed. In the past, Turkish prose-writers, like Classical Latin authors, have in the main denied themselves the freedom of word-order which the structure of their language offers. The qualifier in a definite izafet had to precede its noun, just like the attributive adjective; the verb had to come at the end of the sentence. Any departure from these laws could be dismissed as colloquial. Under the Republic, however, new factors have altered the situation: the `Anatolian' school of novelists and short-story writers have made peasant speech a familiar element of literature; the language- reformers have largely succeeded in establishing the principle that the gap between the written and spoken languages must be narrowed if not eliminated; the writers of the devr:k cUmle (`inverted sentence') school have deliberately departed from the conventional word-order even in formal writing. As they are widely admired and imitated by the younger generation, it seems likely that their style will one day impose itself on all but the most formal and solemn prose. To ignore the `inverted sentence' in the hope that it will go away, as some conservative Turkish gram- marians do, is to confuse the duties of grammarian and literary critic. In fact, the devrik cUmle school's deviations from con- ventional word-order can all be paralleled in the works of the most venerated writers of all periods. Where the more inept adherents of the school go wrong is that they do not use such deviations occasionally, so that by their novelty they may be the more telling, but make them into a new norm. In the `inverted sentence', the qualifier in a definite izafet may follow the word it qualifies. The rule that attributive adjectives (in which we may include participial qualifiers, the equivalent of English relative clauses; see XVIII, 2) must precede their nouns is unbreakable, simply because an adjective which is placed after its noun automatically becomes predicative. mav: den:z `the blue sea' reversed becomes den:z mav: `the sea is blue'. :lk aklima gelen cevap means `the answer which comes first to my mind', If :lk ... gelen is put after cevap, the meaning becomes `the answer is that which first comes to my mind'. But if we take a definite izafet group such as C:ftC:-n:n ev-: `the farmer's house' and invert it, ev: C:ftC:n:n, the grammatical suffixes still show the relationship between the two words and the meaning is un- altered. True, they might also mean `his house is the farmer's', but in context there could be no ambiguity. In informal speech the answer to a question like `what's that place over there?' may well be in the form ev: C:ftC:n:n. The inverted order is even more likely if the phrase is part of a longer sentence, e.g. ev: bUyUk, C:ftC:n:n `his house is big, the farmer's'. This may look as if the qualifier C:ftC:n:n is added as an afterthought, but in fact this is at least as common a form of sentence in the spoken language as the formal C:ftC:n:n ev: bUyUk. In poetry this type of inversion is frequent; there are two instances of it in two consecutive lines in Yahya Kemal's ACik Deniz (`The Open Sea'): G:tt:m o son d:ya=ra k: serhadd:d:r yer:n. / Ha=la= d:l:mded:r tuzu eng:n den:zler:n! `I went to that last land which is earth's boundary. / Still on my tongue is the salt of the limitless seas!' In formal prose, serhadd-:-d:r yer-:n would be yer:n serhadd:d:r, while tuz-u eng:n den:z-ler-:n would be eng:n den:zler:n tuzu. Prose examples are not so frequent: g:y:n:S: ... hayl: acay:pt: bu adamin (Yakup Kadri) `this man's mode of dress was very peculiar'; here the effect is racy and conversational. halkin konuStuGu d:lle, b:l:m, felsefe ve edeb:yatin d:l:n: b:r- leSt:rmek, baSka b:r dey:mle dUSUndUGUnU konuSur g:b: yazmak, :lk :S: olmuStur Avrupa'da aydin k:S:ler:n (EyUboGlu) `to unify the language spoken by the people and the language of science, philosophy, and literature, in other words, to write one's thoughts as if speaking them, has become the first task of the intellectuals in Europe'. The inversion in the last six words is probably due to the desire to avoid the ugly assonance of k:S:ler:n :lk :S:. The commonest manifestation of the devr:k cUmle and the one which most infuriates conservative critics is that the verb does not come at the end of the sentence. In the colloquial, an impera- tive often begins a sentence, because someone with urgent instruc- tions to give will naturally put the operative word first: Cik oradan! `get out of there!' yakma la=mbayi! `don't light the lamp!' Similarly with an urgent question; the bus-conductor in the rush-hour will shout, with his finger poised over the bell, var mi :necek? (or var m':necek?) `is there anyone about to get off?' although at quieter moments he may ask :necek var mi? In a statement, however, the verb tends not to come first. The use of Sey `thing' for `what-d'ye-call-it?' is an indication of the strength of this tendency; if one wants to say `I saw the exhibition' and momentarily forgets the word, one is more likely to say Sey: g0rdUm--serg:y: than g0rdUm--serg:y:. Similarly for `I am going to the what-d'ye-call-it--the exhibition': Seye g:d:yorum --serg:ye rather than g:d:yorum--serg:ye. Consequently, even in the writings of the devr:k cUmle school, it is rare to find a sentence beginning with a verb other than an imperative or a question, except for introductory formulas which are part of the standard written language, such as g0rUlUyor k: `it seems that'. But the verb frequently precedes its subject, object, or modifier. ben: burada bulursa Abd: AGa, 0ldUrUr (Y. Kemal) `if Abdi Agha finds me here, he'll kill me'. Nasil der Yunus Emre: B:r ben var bende benden :Cer:. F::l: sona koyun da, bakin ne oluyor cUmle (EyUboGlu) `What is it Yunus Emre says? ``There is an `I' in me, within the `I'''. Put the verb at the end and see what becomes of the sentence' (`what the sentence becomes'). UC beS k:S:y:z b0yle s0yl:yen, b:l:yoruz CoGunluGa bunu anlatamiyacaGimizi (N. AtaC) `we are a handful of people who talk like this; we know that we could not make the majority understand it'. 4. The sentence-plus. For one type of devr:k cUmle there is a useful term invented by C.S. Mundy; he applies the name `sentence-plus' to the sort of statement in which qualifiers or modifiers are added to the end of a sentence which is already grammatically complete in itself. Mundy gives the example Kayser:'de b:r damadi var `he has a son-in-law at Kayseri'. If this is expanded into `he has a son-in-law who is a doctor at Kayseri', it becomes, in the formal written language, Kayser:'de doktor olan b:r damadi var, but in speech Kayser:'de b:r damadi var, doktor. Besides being the regular mode of ex- pressing such meanings in speech, the sentence-plus occurs frequently in Old Ottoman texts, so that the outsider's sympathies are with those modernist writers who make full use of it, rather than with the pedants who condemn it as un-Turkish. The first of the three following examples is from the fifteenth-century historian ASik PaSazade: hem :k: yildiz doGdu ol zamanda kuyruklu `moreover two stars rose at that time, tailed' (i.e. comets). kapilar da g0nUller: g:b: hep yari aCilir m:saf:re; g0rUlmeden 0nce g0rmek, g0rmekten de Cok g0zetlemek :ster g:b: (EyUboGlu) `the doors too, like their hearts, are always half-opened to the guest, as if wanting to see before being seen and to spy rather than to see'. gUreSC:ler, b:r avuC tuz alip yere atarlar, Sans get:rs:n d:ye `wrestlers take a handful of salt and throw it on the ground for luck' (lit. `saying let it bring luck'). XVI. NUMBER, CASE, AND APPOSITION 1. Concordance of subject and verb. It used to be stated as a rule of grammar that inanimate plural subjects took a singular verb, plural verbs being used with animate subjects or with inanimates personified or considered as individuals, e.g. aGaClar, yUzUmUze konfet: atiyorlar `the trees are throwing confetti into our faces'. Conversely, an animate plural subject could take a singular verb if it represented a number of people acting as one. This rule needs to be modified in one respect: another factor nowadays seems to be the distance between subject and verb; i.e. if an inanimate plural subject takes a plural verb for no obvious reason, it will be because subject and verb are widely separated: F-84 jet uCaklari, ta=y:n ed:len hedefler: roket atarak tahr:p etm:S- lerd:r `the F-84 jets destroyed the assigned targets by firing rockets'. 2. Singular and plural in izafet groups. In an izafet group whose qualifier is a plural, the qualified word, if singular, has the singular possessive suffix: Carklar d0nUyor, kUCUk Cark bUyUGUnU d0ndUrUyor (Sait Faik) `the gears turn, the little gear turns the big one'. If the penultimate word were bUyUkler:n: it would mean `the big ones'. The singular suffix of bUyUG-U-nU refers to the plural Carklar. Bu yUzUkler Cok pahali. Daha ucuzu yok mu? `These rings are very expensive. Have you no cheaper ones?' Here the singular suffix of ucuz-u refers to the class yUzUk of which bu yUzUkler are individual members. This rule may be broken to avoid ambiguity: tUrlU a:lelere--b:lhassa H:nd-Avrupa--mensup olan d:l ve lehCeler:n yayilma tarzi mekan:zmasi, a:t olduklari a:le CerCeves: :C:nde :ncelen- erek tesp:t ed:lm:S bulunuyor `the mechanism of the manner of spreading of languages and dialects belonging to the various families--especially the Indo-European--has been established by being studied within the framework of the family to which they belong'. As `to which they belong', a:t olduklari, refers to the inanimate plural `languages and dialects', it could have been singular, a:t olduGu, except that this might have been taken as referring to one of the preceding singulars `spreading', `manner', or `mechanism'. 3. Idiomatic uses of the plural. (a) A plural noun is sometimes employed where English prefers the singular: soGuklar sebeb:yle Sehr:n su borulari patla- miStir `because of the cold, the city's water-pipes have burst'. What the city has had to face is not just soGuk, cold in general, but soGuklar, some specific instances of cold. bu haber, b:z: hayretlere dUSUrdU `this news reduced us to astonishment'. :y: geceler! `good night!' Allah akillar vers:n! `God give sense!' Feth: Bey, o gece hasimlari Uzer:ne saldirarak b:rer b:rer yerlere ser:yordu (AGaoGlu Ahmet) `Fethi Bey that night, attacking his opponents, was strewing them one by one on the ground'. gel:n, beyazlar g:ym:St: `the bride wore [white?]' [MISSING LINE][IMPROVED] dul kadin, karalar g:ym:St: `the widow wore black'; [MISSING or GARBLED?] although brides wear white, cricketers wear whites. Note also: ger:lere g:tmek `to go back'; uzaklarda `in the far distance'; yakinlarda `in the vicinity'; geCenlerde `in recent times'; buralarda `in these parts'. (b) The use of the plural for a single second or third person is a mark of respect: orada yalniz baSiniza mi oturuyorsunuz? `do you live there all alone?' eS:n:z daha gelmed:ler m:? `has your wife not yet arrived?' (c) On the other hand, the use of the first plural for the first singular is modest: boynumuz kildan :nce `our neck is finer than a hair'. This a jocular expression meaning `I'll have my hair [head?] cut off if I don't do as I'm told'. (d) The first person plural verb is used when the speaker and another person are joint subjects: onunla t:yatroya g:tt:k `he and I went to the theatre'. If the speaker is regarded as the prime mover while the other plays a subordinate part, the verb may be singular: onunla bera- ber t:yatroya g:tt:m `I went to the theatre, together with him'. In the next example, from a newspaper headline, the first plural of the reciprocal verb means not `I and another' but `we and others': Bulgar:stan'la yen:Semed:k `we and Bulgaria were unable to defeat each other'; i.e. the Turkish and Bulgarian football-teams drew. (e) The fact that the plural suffix -ler never occurs more than once in the same word makes possible a useful distinction: taniStiGimiz adamlar mUhend:st:ler (== mUhend:s :d:ler) `the men whom we met were engineers'; taniStiGimiz adamlar mUhend:slerd: (== mUhend:sler :d:) `the men whom we met were the engineers'. m:saf:rseler (== m:saf:r :seler) `if they are guests'; m:saf:rlerse (== m:saf:rler :se) `if they are the guests'. mahkemeye g:renler yargiC deG:ller `those entering the court are not judges'; mahkemeye g:renler yargiClar deG:l `those entering the court are not the judges'. 4. The accusative with b:r. Although the accusative suffix shows that the word to which it is attached is definite, the use of it is not precluded by the presence of b:r, since this, as well as being the `indefinite article', is the numeral `one'. Nevertheless, even in such contexts, `a' and not `one' may often be the better translation. Compare her gUn b:r gazete okuyorum with her gUn b:r gazetey: okuyorum. Both may be translated `every day I read a newspaper', but the second, unlike the first, implies that I always read one particular newspaper. TUrk hUkUmet:, an- laSmalarin aynen uygulanmasini :st:yen b:r notayi Bulgar hUkUmet:ne verm:St: `the Turkish government had given the Bulgarian government a note asking that the agreements should be given strict effect'. Here the nota is defined by the pre- ceding participial clause ending in :st:yen, and therefore has the definite accusative ending. ne aCiklari, ne aClari, ne ben: kizina mUnas:p g0rmeyen zeng:n tUccari h:C b:r Sey: dUSUnm:yeceG:m (Sait Faik) `I am going to think neither of the naked nor the hungry, nor the rich businessman who does not regard me suitable for his daughter; not anything at all'. Because h:C b:r Sey `not any thing' resumes and expands the definite objects about which he is not going to think, it too goes into the accusative. 5. Two idiomatic uses of the dative case. (a) The absolute case of the present participle, followed by its dative case, conveys the idea of a multitude of people doing some- thing in excessive haste: kumsali g0rseyd:n yikanmak :C:n gelen gelene `if you had only seen the beach; people coming in droves to bathe', lit. `the-one-coming in order to bathe to-the-one-coming'. b:zde hUkUmetten kaCan kaCana `amongst us, people fall over each other to avoid being in the government', lit. `in us, the-one-fleeing from-government to-the- one-fleeing'. (b) kardeS:m b:ze gelm:yor d:ye merak etme; gel:yor gelmes:ne `don't worry about my brother not coming to us; he does come, for what it's worth', lit. `he comes for its coming'. The implication is perhaps that he does not come very often and certainly that when he does come the visit is never a great success. gerC:, bulunduGum yer den:z: g0rmUyor deG:l; g0rUyor g0rmes:ne, ama en aSaGi b:r, b:r buCuk saatl:k b:r yerden (Orhan Veli) `It is true that the place where I am is not without a view of the sea; it has a view all right, but from a distance of at least an hour to an hour and a half'; lit. `not it-does-not-see the- sea, it-sees for-its-seeing'. para 0denmes:ne 0den:rd: ama aradan aylar geCerd: `the money would be paid all right, but months would intervene'. Rustavel:, bati d:ller:ne Cevr:l- m:St:r Cevr:lmes:ne `Rustaveli has been translated into the western languages, for what it is worth' (i.e. but nobody reads the translations). This construction, with the third-person suffix of the -me verbal noun, is used even when a second person is addressed; the antecedent of the third-person suffix is vague :` gUzel olmasina gUzels:n ama b:r de kusurun var `you are beautiful, as far as that goes, but you also have a fault'. An old-fashioned English equivalent is `you're beautiful, to say beautiful', i.e. but not to say anything complimentary beyond that. Cf. `Oh she's beautiful enough, if that were all!' In the first of the two following examples, which are from Aziz Nesin, the -me verbal noun has no personal suffix; in the second, there is no verbal noun at all, the abstract noun being used instead: Sa:r olmaya ben Sa:r:m ama okuyamam `I am a poet all right, but I can't recite'. gUzell:G:ne gUzelm:Ss:n `you are said to be beautiful, as far as that goes'. gUzell:G:ne here is ambiguous, as its suffix might be that of the second- or third- person singular; it is in fact third-person singular, `for the beauty of it', and does not vary with the person, so `I am said to be beautiful, as far as that goes' would be gUzell:G:ne gUzelm:S:m. 6. The genitive as logical subject. Although as a rule the subject comes first in the sentence, we not infrequently find a sentence beginning with a word or phrase in the genitive case. The reason is that if the logical subject, the topic-word of the sentence, does not coincide with the grammatical subject, it is the logical subject which comes at the beginning. bu gel:Smeler:n, doGulu vatandaSlarimizin hayatlarinda ne g:b: etk:ler yaratacaGi ortadadir `what sort of effects these developments will create in the lives of our eastern fellow-citizens is manifest'. The predicate is ortada-dir `is in the middle', that is, in medio,in full view. The subject is all the rest of the sentence, bu ... yaratacaGi, these words being the substantivized form of the question bu gel:Smeler ... ne g:b: etk:ler yaratacak? `what sort of effects will these developments produce ...?' The process of turning this question into a noun-clause has put bu gel:Smeler into the genitive--`these developments' creating what sort of effects'--but these two words are still the logical subject and are marked as such by their position at the beginning of the sentence and by the comma. bu kazanin, hayatina mal olmasina ramak kaldi `this accident all but cost him his life', lit. `of this accident, a last breath remained to its being the cost for his life'. kocasinin, tipki diSarda olduGu g:b:, evde de az konuS- mak a=det:yd: (I+lhan Tarus) `her husband was in the habit of speaking little at home too, just as he was outside', lit. `of her husband, just as it was outside, to speak little at home too was his custom'. Hamd: bey:n Cocuklarina tek b:r f:ske b:le vurduGu g0rUlmem:St:. Oysa k: :k:s: de oldum olasi haSariydilar (idem) `Hamdi Bey had never been seen to strike his children even a single flick of the fingers. Yet both of them were pests and always had been.' Lit. `Hamdi Bey's striking ... had not been seen'. The lack of a comma after bey:n must be due to an over- sight, as one is needed not merely to mark the logical subject but to prevent the reader from taking the first three words as an izafet group (`to Hamdi Bey's children'). bu :nsanlarinsa :C:ne b:r kurt dUSmUStUr (EyUboGlu) `as for these people, they are full of misgivings', lit. `as for of these people, a worm [wolf?] has fallen into the inside of them', with the logical subject :nsanlar-in emphasized by -sa ; see XIII, 27. :kt:sadi= buhranin, bu gUne kadar b:r tUrlU 0nU alinamadi `the economic crisis has been not at all preventable up to now'. `To prevent something' is b:r Sey-:n 0n-U-nU almak `to take the front of a thing'. Here the phrase is in the passive: `its front has not been able to be taken'. bu kuvvet:n 0nUne durulmaz `this force is irresistible'. The largest class of sentence with the logical subject in the genitive is that denoting possession or the lack of it: Mehmed':n parasi var `Mehmet has money'; Mehmed':n parasi yok `Mehmet has no money'. Such expressions must not be thought of as consisting in an izafet group-var or yok. The syntactical grouping is not Mehmed':n parasi / var `Mehmet's-money exists' but Mehmed':n / parasi var `Mehmet has-money'. The proof is as follows. An izafet group cannot be split by an adverb unless the qualified element is a verbal noun; see p. 43, footnote. Consider the group cem:yet-:n toplanti-si `the society's meeting'. If the meeting occurred yesterday and we wish to include that information in the izafet group, we cannot insert the adverb dUn but must make it into an adjective: cem:yet:n dUnkU toplantisi `the society's hesternal meeting'. sakalli :ht:yar-in durum-u hoSuma g:derd: `I liked the bearded old man's attitude' (`his attitude used-to-go to-my-pleasure, used to appeal to me'). If we wish to insert in the izafet group the adverbial clause `especially when he was accepting a tip', b:lhassa bahS:S alir-ken, this clause must be made adjectival by the addition of -k: : sakalli :ht:yarin b:lhassa bahS:S alirkenk: durumu... . Similarly, if we wish to say `Mehmet's money in that bank is over a million', the adverbial phrase of place o banka-da must be made into an adjective: Mehmed':n o bankadak: parasi (or Mehmed ':n o bankada bulunan parasi) b:r m:lyondan fazladir. But the Turkish for `Mehmet has money in that bank' is Mehmed':n o bankada parasi var. It follows that what we have here is not an izafet group plus var but a statement, o bankada parasi var `he has money in that bank', to which Mehmed':n is the subject. 7. Apposition. Although the normal method of linking two nouns is by izafet, considerable use is also made of apposition. The usual way of saying `a shepherd-girl' is b:r Coban kizi, i.e. a girl belonging to the category of shepherd. Also possible, however, is b:r Coban kiz or b:r kiz Coban, the emphasis in the latter being on kiz, `a girl shepherd'. So with b:r kadin doktor `a woman doctor', as against b:r doktor kadin `a woman doctor'. b:r kadin doktoru, however, with izafet, is `a gynaecologist'. A lady gynaecologist might be referred to as b:r kadin kadin doktoru. but b:r kadin j:nekolog would be more usual in sophisticated circles. Izafet groups may be used as qualifiers in apposition to nouns: ev sah:b: is `householder' and ev sah:b: takim is `the home team'; s0z konusu `subject of discussion' and s0z konusu kanunlar `the laws under discussion'. tar:h 0nces:, literally `the before of history', and harp sonrasi, literally `the after of war', are nouns of this class, although we translate them as adjectives: tar:h 0nces: dUnya `the prehistoric world'; harp sonrasi Avrupa `post-war Europe'. A curious use of apposition is seen in such expressions as s:z yaSta 'of your age', literally `in you-age'; s:z yaStak:ler `people of your age'; ben yaSta yahut daha bUyUk Cocuklar `children of my age or older'. Apposition is the rule with titles: Osman Gaz:, Balaban Bey, Zenb:ll: Al: Efend:, Hal:de Hanim, MareSal Fevz: C+akmak, Doktor Adnan, Profes0r MansuroGlu. It will be noticed that the ancient titles follow the name whereas the modern Marshal, Doctor, and Professor precede it, in the western fashion. Sultan is an interesting exception; it preceded the names of sovereigns--Sultan Mehmet, Sultan SUleyman-- but followed the names of non-regnant members of the dynasty, male and female: Cem Sultan `Prince jem' Esma Sultan `Princess Esma'. Apposition is not used, however, as it is in English, to show a person's occupation in such expressions as `Ahmet Bilen, a pro- fessor of the Faculty of Letters'; Turkish idiom demands `from the professors of the Faculty of Letters Ahmet Bilen': Edeb:yat FakUltes: Profes0rler:nden Ahmet B:len. So genC aktr:s- ler:m:zden AySe GUzel `Ayesha GUzel, one of our young actresses'; gUmrUk memurlarindan Orhan Soysal `Orhan Soysal the Customs officer'. These expressions in the ablative, like other qualifiers, precede the word they qualify; cf. efend:den, dUrUst :nsanlar `respectable, honest people' (efend:-den `from the class ``gentleman'' '). Expressions consisting of a numeral and the name of a con- tainer or a unit of measurement are followed by the name of the commodity in apposition: b:r bardak su a glass of water :k: S:Se sUt two bottles of milk UC kutu k:br:t three boxes of matches d0rt araba odun four cartloads of wood beS yil hap:s five years' imprisonment alti avuC dolusu Seker six handfuls of sugar or alti avuC Seker yed: kaSik dolusu Corba seven spoonfuls of soup sek:z dak:ka gec:kme eight minutes' delay dokuz metre kumaS nine metres of cloth The same construction is used with words like takim `set', grup `group', c:ns, nev:, CeS:t `sort': b:r takim CamaS:r `a set of linen' (cf. V, 9), b:r grup talebeler `a group of students', b:r CeS:t armut `a sort of pear'. With ara `interval' the distributive numerals are used in such sentences as otobUsler, beSer onar dak:ka ara :le geC:yordu `the buses were passing at five- or ten-minute intervals'. Either or both of the nouns in apposition may be separately qualified: b:r tencere p:s su `a saucepan of dirty water', :k: bUyUk S:Se beyaz Sarap `two large bottles of white wine'. XVII. THE NOUN CLAUSE AND THE SUBSTANTIVAL SENTENCE 1. The verbal noun in -me and the personal participles. It will be recalled that the personal participles have three functions: as adjectives, as nouns meaning `that which I do' and as nouns meaning `the fact that I do'. It is the third of these functions which will be discussed in this section, as it must be distinguished from the functions of -me in its sense of `the act of doing'. -me is used in indirect commands, -d:G: and -eceG: in indirect statements and questions: Cocuklara aSaGiya :n:p kend:s:n: sokakta beklemeler:n: s0yled: `she told the children to go downstairs and wait for her in the street'. With the substitution of bekled:kler:n: for beklemeler:n:, the sentence would mean `she told the children that they went down and waited ...'; with bekl:yecekler:n:, `... that they would go and wait ...'. onbaSi- ya k0Seye doGru koSmasini emrett: `he ordered the corporal to run towards the corner'; yarin sabah gelmen:z :C:n tele- fon ett: `he has telephoned for you to come (``for your coming'') tomorrow morning'; kapiyi k:l:tlemey: unutmayiniz `do not forget to lock (``the locking'') the door'; kapiyi k:l:tlemen:z: tavs:ye eder:m `I recommend that you lock (``your locking'') the door'; kapiyi k:l:tled:G:n:z: unutmayiniz `do not forget that you have locked the door'; lokantamizda mUskUrat :sti- mal olunmadiGindan (XI, 24) talep ed:lmemes: muhterem mUSter:ler:m:zden r:ca olunur `as intoxicants are not used in our restaurant, our honoured clients are requested not to ask for them' (`their-not-being-demanded is-requested from our ... clients'); en Cok bunun yapilmasini :sterd:m `most of all I should like this to be done'. Although the function of the personal suffixes is to indicate the agent of the -me verbal noun, the third-person suffix is used with the -me verbal noun of impersonal passives: de Gaulle, dolar yer:ne altin esasina d0nUlmes:n: :sted: `de Gaulle has demanded a return to the gold standard instead of the dollar'; kapilara dayanilmamasi r:ca olunur `it is requested that one should not lean against the doors' (`its-not-being-leaned to-the- doors is-requested'); :ler: g:d:lmes: r:ca olunur `going (``the being-gone-of-it'') forward is requested'. The -s: in these examples performs no visible function and is to be ascribed to analogy with sentences of the type of the two preceding examples; cf. also II, 22. For a similar use of the third-person personal participle of an impersonal passive, see XVIII, 3 (a). Indirect questions are made by turning the verb of the direct question into the appropriate personal participle: ne yapiyorum? `what am I doing?' ne yapacaGim? `what am I going to do?' ne yaptiGimi, ne yapacaGimi b:lm:yorum `I do not know what I am doing what I am going to do'. parayi k:mden aldiniz? `from whom did you take the money?' parayi k:mden aldiGi- nizi soracak deG:l:m `I do not intend to ask from whom you took the money'. kizlarin yanina yaklaSti ve kend:ler:ne ne Sek:lde yardim edeb:leceG:n: sordu `he approached the girls (``came near to the side of the girls'') and asked in what way he could help them' (for the conditional force of edeb:leceG:n: see XX, 9). In the following example (from EyUboGlu), the -me verbal noun is used in the indirect question beginning with nasil, to convey the idea of necessity; i.e. there is an indirect command within the question: her yerde, her zaman okuryazarlar toplum hayatinin nasil b:r dUzene g:rmes: g:b: meseleler Uzer:nde az Cok b:r f:k:r sah:b:d:rler `everywhere and always the literates have more or less of an idea on questions such as what sort of order social life should enter'. The personal par- ticiple g:rd:G:, g:rmekte olduGu, or g:receG: would mean not `should enter' but `has entered', `is entering', or `would enter'. When a personal participle is the subject of a sentence whose predicate is a noun, care must be taken not to read it as qualify- ing the noun: Bu :k: kaygu b:r araya gelm:yorsa kabahat k:m:n? Orasi ayri mesele: ama gelmed:G: ortada `If these two concerns do not coincide (``do not come to one place''), whose fault is it? That is a separate problem, but that they do not co- incide is manifest' (`their-not-coming is in-the-middle'; cf. XVI, 6, first paragraph). To take gelmed:G: as an adjectival qualifier of ortada (`but in the middle to which they do not come') is grammatically possible but fruitless. In the next example, both subject and predicate are personal participles: zaten b:z:m de merak ett:G:m:z bunlarin k:mler olduGu `just so; what we are curious about is who these people are'. The subject is merak ett:G:m:z `that pertaining to our exercising curiosity', the predicate bunlarin k:mler olduGu `of-these, their-being who?' 2. The substantival sentence. This term has been coined to cover a situation which often arises in Turkish: a complete sentence functions as a noun clause or adjectival clause within a longer sentence. An obvious example, not peculiar to Turkish, is in reporting speech: gUneS daha batmadi, ded: ```the sun has not yet set'', said he', where the words quoted are the direct object of ded: `said he'. But in Turkish the substantival sentence is more widely used than this, especially in the colloquial and there- fore in the latest literary idiom. The regular literary practice with a sentence that is to be the subject or object of a verb is to turn it into a noun clause by substituting a personal participle for the finite verb of the original sentence: kumar meraklisi :d:, b:r gece b:n l:ra kaybett:G: olurmuS `he was a gambling enthusi- ast; it was said that there were occasions when he lost a thousand lira in a night'. Here the subject of olurmuS `was said to happen' is b:r ... kaybett:G: `his losing ...'. `yer yok' d:ye mUSter: Cevr:ld:G: g0rUlmUS Sey deG:ld:r `for customers to be turned away with the words ``no room'' is a thing that has never been witnessed'. Here the subject is Cevr:ld:G: `their being turned', In the next example, however, the original finite verb has not been changed to a personal participle: dUSUnUS ayriliklar hayatimizi allak bullak eder de dostluGa dokunmaz olur mu? (EyUboGlu) `is it possible that differences of ways of thinking can throw our lives into chaos and not affect friendship?' The subject of olur mu is the complete sentence dUSUnUS ... dokunmaz. 3. The substantival sentence as adjectival qualifier. kuS uCmaz kervan geCmez b:r yer `an inaccessible spot', lit. `a bird-does- not-fly, caravan-does-not-pass place', with the sentence kuS ... geCmez occupying the normal position of the attributive adjec- tive, before b:r. aSaGi tUkUrse sakali, yukari tUkUrse biyiGiydi `he was in a quandary', lit. `he was if he spits down, his beard; if he spits up, his moustache'; cf. XII, 10 (d). seyahattan UfUr uCtum, tut kaCtim, d0ndUm `I came back from the trip so skinny that a breath of wind would have blown me away', lit. `I came back, puff! I've flown; hold me! I've gone!' The four- verb sentence UfUr ... kaCtim stands in place of an adjective such as `emaciated'. In the essay which gives its name to EyU- boGlu's Mavi ve Kara, the `blue' and the `black' symbolize respectively art and money: H:C b:r Sey vermez m: olur paranin kulu olmuS sanatCi? Ver:r, kolayina kaCtiGi :C:n daha da bol ver:r; ama ne? K:rl: b:r mav:, olmasa da olur b:r mav: `Is it totally unproductive that he becomes, the artist who has become the slave of money? He produces; because he has taken the easy course (``fled to-the-easy-of-it'') he pro- duces even more abundantly, but what? An impure blue, a blue we could well do without'. The adjectival qualifier of the final b:r mav: is the complete conditional sentence olmasa da, olur `even if it were non-existent, that would be all right'. It may be noted that whole sentences can similarly be used as qualifiers in colloquial English: `a headmaster of the ``this is going to hurt me more than it's going to hurt you'' breed'; `a sheriff of the ``shoot first and then ask questions'' school'. 4. The substantival sentence as qualifier in izafet. The sentence so used can be of as little as one word, or longer: 0ldU haber: `the news that he has died', lit. `he-has-died the-news-thereof'; olmaz cevabi `the answer ``it is not possible'''; kalk borusu `reveille' (`the ``Rise!'' trumpet'); nereye g:d:yoruz sorusu `the question ``where are we going?'''; ben yaptim :dd:as:yle `with his claim of ``I did it'''; ne oldum del:s: `a parvenu who gives himself airs' (```what I have become!'' madman'). nasil olup da ... tab:r: fransizca'nin `comment se fait-il que' sU mana- s:yle kullanilir `the expression nasil olup da ... is used with the meaning of the French ``comment se fait-il que'''. The sU is the third-person suffix linking the French phrase to its qualifier fransizca'nin and it has this particular form because it takes its vocal colour from the `que', whose vowel is more or less the Turkish 0. 5. The sentence with case-endings. As a whole sentence can thus take the syntactic place of a substantive, it is not surprising that we sometimes find a sentence to which a case-ending is attached: komSu hasta, geCm:S olsun'a g:del:m `the neighbour is ill; let's go and wish him better', lit. `let-us-go for-the-``may-it-be past'''. The literary Turkish for `he makes no mention of when it will be finished' is ne zaman b:t:r:leceGinden h:C bahsetm:- yor, with the personal participle (here in the ablative because that is the case required by bahsetmek `to mention') replacing the finite verb of the simple question ne zaman b:t:r:lecek? But a vivid colloquial version could be ne zaman b:t:r:lecek'ten h:C bahsetm:yor, which has the feeling of `When will it be finished? That he doesn't mention'. See also the last example in XI, 32. XVIII. ADJECTIVAL PHRASES AND PARTICIPIAL QUALIFIERS 1. The baSibozuk construction. This type of qualifier derives from a statement whose subject is an izafet group: Su adam-in baS-i bozuk `that man's head is deranged'. The words baSi bozuk `his head deranged' can be used to qualify adam by placing them before it: baSi bozuk adam `the his-head-deranged man, the man whose head is deranged'. Now when a sentence whose verb is not simply the copula (as it is in baSi bozuk) is made into a qualifier, the verb becomes the corresponding participle; thus to make a qualifier out of U+n:vers:tede hukuk okuyor `she is reading law at the University' we substitute for the present tense okuyor the present participle okuyan : U+n:- vers:tede hukuk okuyan kiz `the girl who is reading law ...'. But this construction offers further possibilities. Beginning with the statement kizi hukuk okuyor `his daughter is reading law', we can turn it into a qualifier on the baSibozuk pattern: kizi hukuk okuyan adam `the man whose daughter is reading law' (`the his-daughter-reading-law man'). babasi C+:n'de doGdu `his father was born in China'. The participle corresponding to doGdu is doGmuS: babasi C+:n'de doGmuS b:r tanidiGim var `I have an acquaintance whose father was born in China'. :ht:yar-in ak sakal-i kana boyanasi (VIII, 23) `may the old man's beard be dyed in blood!' The future II may be used adjectivally (IX, 3): bu ak sakali kana boyanasi :ht:yar tUtUn kaCakCilar:yle ortaktir (F. Cela=lettin) `this damned old scoundrel (lit. ``this may-his-white-beard-be-dyed-in-blood old- man'') is in league with the tobacco-smugglers'. When the verb of the original statement is simply the copula, the use of a participle meaning `being', i.e. olan or bulunan, is optional in the derived baSibozuk qualifier. It is perhaps a little more usual when the subject of the qualifying phrase, the baS of baSibozuk, is something or someone external to the thing or person qualified, as in the first three of these examples: evi bUyUk olan b:r arkadaSim `a friend of mine whose house is big'; bahCes: bUyUk olan b:r ev `a house which has a big garden'; amcasi bakan bulunan b:r Cocuk `a child whose uncle is a minister'; el: aCik b:r dost `an open-handed friend'. The construction provides a large number of phrases, some so common that, like baSibozuk itself, they are generally written as one word, e.g. gel:S:gUzel `random' (lit. `its-way-of-coming beautiful', i.e. however it comes it is all right); karniyarik `stuffed aubergine' (`its-belly split'); d:n: bUtUn `pious' (`his-religion complete'); g0zU pek `unyielding' (`his-eye firm'); el: boS `empty-handed'. If such an adjectival phrase is used predicatively, the personal suffix may vary with the person: sakin el:n boS gelme `mind you don't come empty-handed'; but sakin el: boS gelme is also possible. As alternatives to many such expressions, phrases with -l: may be used: `a garden with a tumble-down wall' may be duvar-i yikik b:r bahCe or yikik duvar-li b:r bahCe; `the keen-eyed colonel' may be bakiSlar-i kesk:n albay or kesk:n bakiS-li albay; `the open-windowed room' pencere-s: aCik oda or aCik pencere-l: oda. 2. Translation of English relative clauses. The purist may object that such a heading as this has no place in a Turkish grammar. The uses of the Turkish participles, however, are difficult to grasp through a purely descriptive treatment and the author is there- fore emboldened to hope that he may be forgiven for approaching the topic from the wrong end. The English-speaker composing in Turkish must resist the temptation to translate his relative clauses with the help of k: (XIII, 15); this use is regarded as alien and is increasingly rare in modern Turkish. (a) When the relative pronoun (i.e. the English relative pro- noun) is in the nominative, use -en, -m:S (olan), -ecek (olan): `the man who is now speaking' S:md: konuSan adam; `the letter which came yesterday' dUn gelm:S olan mektup; `the congress which will begin tomorrow' yarin baSliyacak olan kongre. (b) Use the personal particles: (i) When the relative pronoun is in the accusative, either as object of the verb in the relative clause--`the letter which I wrote' yazdiGim mektup; `the lawyer whom he chose' seCt:G: avukat-- or as object of a preposition other than `of' or one whose Turkish equivalent is a secondary postposition (in which cases rule (d) applies): `the ship on which they came' geld:kler: vapur; `the door from which we emerged' CiktiGimiz kapi; `the beggar at whom you looked' baktiGiniz d:lenc:. When the relative pronoun is the object of `with', b:rl:kte or beraber `together' may be inserted: `the friends with whom he drank' b:rl:kte :Ck: :Ct:G: arkadaSlar. (ii) When the relative pronoun is in the genitive and the noun it governs is in the nominative as complement of the verb in the relative clause; the equivalent noun in Turkish takes the third- person suffix: `the man whose servant I am' h:zmetC:s: bulun- duGum adam; `a society of which I am a member' Uyes: bulunduGum b:r cem:yet; `the province of which you are going to become governor' val:s: olacaGiniz v:la=yet; `the village of which he has been elected mayor' muhtari seC:ld:G: k0y. The rule holds good if the verb with the complement is depen- dent on another verb: `the society of which I intend to become a member' Uyes: olmak n:yet:nde bulunduGum cem:yet (`the society pertaining-to-my-being-found in-the-intention-of to-be- come its-member'); `the village of which he wishes to be elected mayor' muhtari seC:lmek :sted:G: k0y (`the village pertaining- to-his-wishing to-be-elected its-mayor'). (c) When the relative pronoun is in the genitive and the noun it governs is in the nominative as subject of the verb in the relative clause, use the baSibozuk construction with participle: `the man whose father is now speaking' babasi S:md: konuSan adam; `the jockey whose horse came first' ati b:r:nc: gelm:S olan cokey; `the society whose congress will start tomorrow' kongre- s: yarin baSliyacak olan cem:yet. (d) When the relative pronoun is in the genitive and the noun it governs is in the accusative, or when the relative pronoun is in the accusative as object of a preposition other than `of' or one whose Turkish equivalent is a secondary postposition, use baSi- [MISSING] pictures we are seeing' res:mler:n: g0rmekte olduGumuz ressam; `the artist at whose pictures we looked' res:mler:ne baktiGimiz ressam; `the society to whose congress we shall go tomorrow' kongres:ne yarin g:deceG:m:z cem:yet; `the house from the inside of which we emerged' :C:nden CiktiGimiz ev; `the ideal for whose sake he died' uGrunda 0ldUGU UlkU. (e) Rules (c) and (d) apply also if the noun following the `whose' is itself in the genitive. If the noun governed by that noun in the genitive is the subject of the verb in the relative clause, proceed according to rule (c); if it is the object of the verb or of a pre- position, proceed according to rule (d): `the man whose father's house is near ours' babasinin ev: b:z:mk:ne yakin olan adam; `the man whose father's house we bought' babasinin ev:n: aldiGimiz adam; `the man in (``with'') whose father's car we came' babasinin arabas:yle geld:G:m:z adam. 3. Two variant types of participial qualifier. The previous section does not cover two situations which arise in Turkish. (a) When an impersonal verb is made into a qualifier, it can be either as a participle or as a personal participle: saGlik :stat:st:k- ler:ne g0re mart en Cok hastalanilan, hatta= en Cok 0lUnen aydir `according to health statistics, March is the month in which most illness arises, indeed in which most deaths occur'. hastalan-il-an and 0l-Un-en are the participles corresponding to hastalan-il-iyor and 0l-Un-Uyor, impersonal passives meaning `being-ill-is-done' and `dying-is-done'. yavaS yavaS normale d0nUldUGU b:r sirada, o adam :kt:dara geCt: `at a time when things were slowly returning to normal, that man came to power'. d0nUldUGU is the adjectival form of the statement d0n-Ul- Uyordu `returning was being done', but the function of the third- person suffix here is not obvious. The best explanation is that the use of the personal participle in expressions of time with sira, zaman, etc., has become habitual. (b) Sometimes in situations where rule (b) of the previous section would lead us to expect a personal participle, we find instead -en, -m:S, or -ecek: gUneS g:rm:yen eve hek:m g:rer `the physician enters the house which sunshine does not enter'; yangin Cikan b:r Amer:kan uCak gem:s:nde 47 0lU sayildi `on an American aircraft-carrier on which fire broke out, 47 dead have been counted'; sirtindak: g0mlek, bazi kasabalarda :lkokul 0Grenc:ler:ne g0GUslUk yapilan yerl: gr: bezdend: `the shirt on his back was of the local grey cloth of which in some towns pinafores are made for primary-school pupils'; elektr:k get:r:len Istiranca k0yUnde sanay:leSme baSladi `in the village of I., to which electricity is being brought (or `has just been brought'; see IX, 1, penultimate paragraph), industrializa- tion has begun'; AtatUrk'Un :sted:G: :lk 0Gret:m raporunu hazirlamak Uzere CiktiGimiz b:r k0y gez:s:nde h:C 0Gret- men g:rmem:S b:r k0yde okur yazar Cocuklar bulduk `on a village-tour, which we went on in order to prepare the report on primary education which A. wanted, we found children who could read and write in a village which no teacher had ever entered'; kal:tey: muhafaza etmek :C:n tUtUn ek:lecek sahalari tesb:t edeceG:z `in order to preserve the quality, we shall fix the areas where tobacco is to be sown'. In these examples we might have expected: not but g:rm:yen g:rmed:G: Cikan CiktiGi yapilan yapildiGi get:r:len get:r:ld:G: g:mem:S g:rmed:G: ek:lecek ek:leceG: In fact, only in the penultimate example is the personal participle a possible alternative; in the others, it would sound too specific in conjunction with the broad and amorphous subjects sunshine, conflagration, pinifores by and large, electricity, and tobacco. In the penultimate example, g:rmed:G: would be possible; it may be that in the writer's mind there was an echo of a proverb which is the first example in this paragraph. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 36 XIX. THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND KI+ 1. Clauses of purpose. Clauses of purpose containing a subjunctive may, but need not, be introduced by ta k: (sometimes written ta= k:) or by k: alone: o vak:t, b:r saGa b:r sola baSvurmaGa baSliyorsunuz; ta= k: daldiGiniz bu toprak deryasi :C:nden kend:n:ze b:r :z bulup Cikasiniz (Yakup Kadri) `then you begin to cast about, now to right, now to left, so that you may find a track for yourself and emerge from this ocean of earth into which you have plunged'. oturdum k: b:r dak:ka d:nleney:m `I sat down so that I might rest a minute'. Note that there is no `sequence of tenses'; the main verb in the past tense is followed by the present subjunctive. herkesten Cok koSacaksin k: paCayi kurtarasin `you will run more than everybody so that you may save your skin'. S:md: uyuyun k:, sabah kalkinca d:nC kafayla CaliSasiniz `now sleep, so that when you get up in the morning you may work with a sound head'. It must be emphasized that k: merely introduces such clauses; it is the subjunctive (in which term is included the third-person imperative) that expresses purpose, so that the k: may be omitted from purpose-clauses, especially in less formal language: pen- cerey: aC, oda havalansin `open the window, so that the room may air'. Muhalefet ne yapilsin :st:yor? S0yles:nler 0Grene- l:m `What does the Opposition want done? Let them say, so that we may learn', lit. `What does the Opposition want should-be- done? Let-them-say let-us-learn'. 2. The subjunctive after a negative main verb. After a negative main verb, the subjunctive with k: is used to show what would have been the consequence had the main verb been positive but, as things stand, is now impossible: 0ded:G:m taks:tler:n makbuzlari yanimda deG:l k: Cikarip g0sterey:m (Aziz Nesin) `the receipts of the instalments I have paid are not on me that I should produce and show them'. O+lUm bu. S:yaset hayati deG:l k:, b:r o yana b:r bu yana d0nes:n (idem) `It's death, this. It isn't political life, that you should swing now to that side, now to this'. Ben g:tt:kCe 0fkelenmeGe baSliyorum: / `Nasil arabacilik bu! d:yorum; ne yol b:l:rs:n, ne de ... / `Yol nerede efend:? yol yok k: b:ley:m; d:yor. / B:Caren:n hakki var. Evet yol yok k:...(Yakap Kadri) `I am gradually beginning to get annoyed. `What sort of driving is this!' I say; `You neither know the road, nor...''.`Where is the road, sir? There is no road for me to know,'' says he. The poor fellow is right. Yes, there is no road' (for the translated final k: cf. page 214, second paragraph). The subjunctive occurs in other types of subordinate clauses after a negative main verb: gUn geCm:yor k: tur:st:k tes:sler- den b:r S:ka=yet mektubu almamiS olalim `a day does not pass without our receiving (`that we be not having-received'') a letter of complaint from the tourist establishments'. The logic behind the use of the subjunctive here is that as we in fact receive such letters daily, our not receiving one is only a concept, with no objective reality. h:C b:r ger:c: yoktur k:, AtatUrk dUSmani olmasin `there is no reactionary who is not an enemy of AtatUrk'. h:C tamh:n etm:yorum k: vaz:yette b:r deG:S:kl:k olab:ls:n `I do not reckon that there can be a change in the situation'. zannetmem k: paSa veyahut val:des: buna razi olsunlar `I do not think that the Pasha or his mother will agree to this'. 3. The subjunctive in noun clauses. The third-person imperative without k: makes noun clauses which can be the subject or object of a verb; for an instance of the latter use, in the last example in section 1, above. b0yle b:r m:llet es:r yaSamaktansa mahvol- sun evla=dir (AtatUrk) `for such a nation, to be annihilated is preferable to living slaves'. The predicate is evla=-dir `is preferable'; the subject is b0yle ... mahvolsun `that such a nation be annihilated'. ev ben:m olsun da z:yani yok tek katli olsun `let the house be mine and it doesn't matter if it is single-storied'. Here the subject is tek katli olsun `that it be single-storied'. the predicate z:yan-i yok `there is no harm in it'. dUSUnceler:m:z:n y0nU b:r olsun yeter `that the direction of our thoughts be one is sufficient'. h:C olmasin daha :y: `that it should not exist at all is better'. bu kadar bas:t b:r :S: yapamasin, hayret doGrusu `that he should be unable to do a job as simple as this is truly surprising'. C+alikuSu aGlasin? ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 39 On sened:r ne muall:meler:nden, ne arkadaSlarindan bunu g0ren olmamiSti `That the Wren should weep? For ten years none of her teachers or friends had seen this' (`neither of her teachers nor of her friends the-one-seeing this had-not-occurred'). The question-mark indicates wonder at the unusual event; the author could not make a question of it in the normal way, because C+alikuSu aGlasin mi could only mean `Is the Wren to weep?' An alternative way of analysing these examples is to explain them as consisting of two separate main clauses, e.g. mahvolsun evla=dir `let it be annihilated; is preferable'. Against this is the fact that such sentences are pronounced with no pause be- tween the two verbs. Nor will this explanation fit the example bu kadar bas:t ... doGrusu, or indeed the last one. XX. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 1. Open conditions. These are expressed by the conditional form of the appropriate tense. (a) present: halkimizi gerCekten sev:yor-sak, onun :C:n CaliSiyoruz derken yalan s0ylem:yor-sak, onu kuSkulardan korkulardan kurtarmak :lk :S:m:z olmali `if we truly love our people; if, when saying we are working for them, we are not telling lies, our first task ought to be to deliver them from sus- picions and fears'. (b) future: s0yl:yecek-sen (or s0yl:yecek olur-san) s0yle `if you are going to tell, tell'. (c) aorist: this is by far the commonest tense of open conditions: hUla=sa eder-sek Suraya variyoruz `if we summarize, we arrive at this point'; Sunu b:r anlar-saniz bana bUyUk b:r :y:l:k etm:S olacaksiniz `if you will only understand this, you will have done me a great kindness'; bu t:rene yet:Semez-sem :S: kaCiracaGim `if I cannot catch this train I shall lose the job'. (d) past: o, yola CikmiS-sa b:z n:ye oturuyoruz burada? `if he has started out, why are we sitting here?'; gUnah mi :Sled:k beS on para kazandi-ysak? `have we committed a sin if we've earned five or ten coppers?' 2. Alternatives to the conditional verb. Open conditions may also be expressed without a conditional verb, in four possible ways: (a) The protasis may have a personal participle with takd:rde; see XI, 23. (b) The protasis may be a question in the d:-past: o geld: m: ben burada durmam, lit. `has he come? I do not stop here', which may mean either `if he has come I'm not stopping here' or `if ever he comes I don't stop here'. A macabre old saying ran asildin mi I+ng:l:z s:c:m:yle asil `if you are hanged, be hanged with English rope'. (c) The sentence may be cast as a reductio ad absurdum; the protasis concedes what the speaker regards as false, the apodosis (introduced by de) asks for an alternative: sen yapmadin da k:m yapti? `you didn't do it and who did?'; Tanri, DoGru'nun, I+y:'n:n, GUzel':n yardimcisi olmaz da ney:n yardimcisi olur? `if God does not help the True, the Good, the Beautiful, what does He help?' (lit. `God does not become the helper of ... and of what does He become the helper?')- (d) In the colloquial, the protasis may have an imperative instead of a conditional verb: uzatma birakir g:der:m `don't prolong I shall abandon go'. 3. Remote and unfulfilled conditions. The verb of the protasis is in the appropriate tense of the conditional mood; the verb of the apodosis is, with unfulfilled conditions, in the aorist past or, less commonly, the future past; with remote conditions or for greater vividness with unfulfilled conditions, the aorist present or future simple: ev:m:z d0Sel: dayali ol-sa buyurun de-r-d:m ama g0rUyorsunuz ... `if our house were properly furnished I should say ``please come in'' but you see ...'; baSka b:r kaynaG- imiz ol-ma-sa-ydi bu a=l:m:n tetk:kler: bu meseleye tam b:r cevap verm:S olacakti `if we had no other source, this scholar's researches would have given a complete answer to this problem'; bakmakla usta olun-sa k0pekler kasaplik 0Gren:r `if one became (impersonal passive) a master craftsman by watching, the dogs would learn the butcher's trade'; sen ol-san ne yap-ar-sin? `ifit were you,what would you do?' Note that the idiom is `if you were', i.e. the person responsible; cf. the next example. meden:yet:n maddes: ma=nev:s: d:ye ayirmalar yapanlara ben ol-sam h:C elektr:k ver-mem `to those who make distinctions between material and spiritual civilization (`distinctions saying ``of civilization, its material, its spiritual'''), I should give no electricity, if it were up to me'. Su adam kar- Simda ol-sa girtlaGina saril-acaGim `if that man were facing me I should wrap myself round his throat'. 4. Apodosis to an unexpressed protasis. The aorist past is used in expressions like ol-ur-du `it would be' and :ste-r-d:m `I should like', which are apodoses of an implicit remote or un- fulfilled protasis such as `if possible, if it were so': Baudela:re':n D0rdUncU Mehmed':n hayatini tanimiS olmasini :sterd:m; hakki olan b:r S0hret kazan-ir-di `I should have liked Bau- delaire to have been acquainted with the life of Mehmet IV; he would have won a fame which is his due'. Sen sariSinsin, ben de esmer:m. Ne gUzel CocuGumuz olurdu, ded: ```You are blonde, I am dark. What a beautiful child we should have'', said he'. 5. Alternative protases. Pairs of alternative protases are expressed in the remote form (because the two conditions, being mutually exclusive, are not both open), with a de after the verb in each protasis: b:z :ste-sek te :ste-me-sek te kiz beGenmed:G: adama var-maz `whether we want it or whether we do not want it, the girl will not marry a man she does not like'; Seh:rde :S bul-sam da bul-ma-sam da k0ye h:C d0nmem gayri `whether I find work in the city or not, I shall never go back to the village any more'. 6. Concessive clauses. A single conditional verb followed by de is concessive: k0ye :ste-sem de d0nemem gayri `I cannot go back to the village any more even if I should want to'; :Cmem! ded:-ysem de, israr ett:ler `though I said ``I don't drink!'', they insisted'. See also XI, 22 and 29, last paragraph. 7. `Whatever, whenever, whoever, wherever'. Such words are expressed by ne, ne vak:t, k:m, nerede, etc. (with or without a preceding her ; cf. the penultimate paragraph of XI, 14) followed by a conditional verb: ne yikilmiS-sa softalar yikmiStir bu memlekette `whatever has been demolished the bigots have demolished in this country'. ne kadar yukaridan :n-er-se o kadar der:ne g:r-er `the greater the height it falls from, the deeper it goes in' (of a pile-driver; lit. `from whatever amount high it descends, to that amount deep it enters'). ne vak:t evler:ne g:t-sek veyahut onlar b:ze gel-se-ler hep kavga ederler `whenever we go to their house or they come to us, they always quarrel'. nasil with a conditional verb is usually best translated not `however' but `just as' or `in just the same way that': nasil I+stanbul m:marliGi b:r gUnde teSekkUl etmem:S-se, BoGaz:C: de tek b:r zamanin eser: deG:ld:r `just as Istanbul architecture did not take shape in one day, so too the Bosphorus is not the work of a single time'. Sentences of the type discussed in the preceding paragraph can be put into the past tense by making the verb of the apodosis past: ne kadar yukaridan :nerse o kadar der:ne g:der-d: `the greater the height it fell from, the deeper it used to go in'. 8. eGer, Sayet. Both these words are Persian in origin and they mean respectively `if' and `if perchance'. As the sense of `if' is conveyed in Turkish by the conditional verb, neither is syn- tactically essential. eGer is useful in a long and complicated sentence to give warning that a conditional verb is coming, in the same sort of way that Spanish uses a premonitory inverted question mark and exclamation mark. eGer Augsburg :tt:faki akded:lmem:S olsaydi bugUnkU dUnyanin pek baSka b:r dUnya olacaGi dUSUnUlemezse de, eGer Newton 1687 de Pr:nc:p:a'sini neSretmem:S olsaydi, bugUnkU :l:m ve meden:yet a=lem:n: ayni vaz:yette bulacaGimiz pek SUphel: :d: `although it cannot be thought that if the Treaty of Augsburg had never been concluded the world of today would be a very different world, if Newton had not published his Principia in 1687 it is very doubtful whether we would find today's world of science and civilization in the same position'. One might have expected the last verb to be olurdu `it would have been', but the con- ditional notion, the `would have', is contained in the bulacaG- imiz ; see the following section. The use of Sayet has much the same effect as stressing the `if' in an English conditional sentence: gelse if he should come (as he might) Sayet gelse if he should come (which I doubt) gel:rse if he comes (as he perfectly well may) Sayet gel:rse if he comes (which I am not guaranteeing) 9. Conditional sense of the future personal participle. The future personal participle is used to turn into a noun- or adjective-clause the apodosis of a remote or unfulfilled condition: bugUnkU Hanhay b0lges:nde Rus jeologlar araStirmalar yapmiSlar ve sonunda bu b0lgen:n 1000 yil 0nce ormanli olamiya- caGini ortaya koymuSlar `Russian geologists have conducted researches in the present-day Hanhay region and have finally shown that a thousand years ago this region could not have been forested'. Here olamiyacaGi (in the accusative as object of ortaya koymuSlar `they have placed into the middle, have revealed') is the nominal form not of olamiyacak `it will not be able to be' but of olamiyacakti `it could not be'. esk:den k:mb:l:r kaC gUn, kaC gecede kona g0Ce g:decekler: b:r yere S:md: UC beS saat :C:nde kuS g:b: uCacaklardir `to a place to which in the old days they would have gone (g:decekler: here not ``pertaining to their future going'' but ``pertaining to their future-in-the-past going'') in who knows how many days and nights, constantly camping and moving on, they will now fly like birds in a few hours'. See also XXIV, ##27, 28. 10. The conditional base. Turkish grammarians call the con- ditional base, e.g. gelse, `the wish-condition mood', d:lek-Sart k:p:. When it expresses wishes it may be introduced by keSk: or keSke (P), which syntactically is as redundant as eGer. The reader is once again reminded to distinguish between (a) the past tense of the conditional mood and (b) the conditional mood of the past tense: (a) b:l-se-yd:m if I had known (b) b:l-d:-ysem if I knew (a) can be the protasis of an unfulfilled condition--b:lseyd:m buraya gelmezd:m `had I known I should not have come here'--or can stand alone as a hopeless wish: b:lseyd:m! or keSk: b:lseyd:m! `if only I had known!' (b) is the protasis of an open condition in the past: o zaman b:ld:ysem S:md: unut- muSum `if I knew then, I have forgotten now'. The first persons of the conditional base can express a diffident first-person imperative: CarSiya g:tsek `if we were to go to the market', with an implied apodosis olmaz mi? `would it not be all right?' Cf. eSyalarimi Suraya koysam olmaz mi `wouldn't it do if I were to put my things over there?' An intermediate stage may be seen in CarSiya g:tsek m:? `how about going to the market?' (lit. `if we were to go ...?'). But no apodosis seems to be implicit in ne yapsam? `what should I do?' For an alternative explanation of these uses, see the end of #14, below. 11. -sene, -sen:ze. The interjection e/a is suffixed to the second persons of the conditional base to make an imperative: desene! `do say!' otursaniza! `do sit down !' This may be followed by ya [MISSING LINES] [SECTIONS 12, 13] or fifty pages'; onlara yardim :C:n versen versen ell: l:ra ver:rs:n `if you give anything to help them you will give fifty lira'. 14. olsa gerek `it must be'. Sa:t Fa:k':n kaygusu yen: olmak deG:l, sah:h olmak : gerCekten yen: olmasini saGlayan da bu olsa gerek (EyUboGlu) `Sait Faik's concern is not to be original but to be authentic: this must be what in fact makes him original'. The construction is rare with other verbs than ol-: bu f:k:r, yanliS b:r dUnya telakk:s:nden doGsa gerek `this idea must originate from a mistaken attitude to the world'. gerek means `necessary' and the construction may be an elliptical con- ditional sentence: `if it be, is necessary'. This possibility is supported by olsa yer:d:r in the next example, `if it be, it is its place', i.e. it is appropriate: B:z :nsanlar Allahi arayip dururuz. Bulsak acaba ne d:yeceG:z? I+lk S:ka=yet:m:z tiynet:m:z:n bozukluGu hakkinda olsa yer:d:r (HUseyin Rahmi) `We humans are constantly seeking God. If we should find , I wonder what we shall say? It is appropriate that our first complaint should be about the corruptness of our clay'. An alternative explanation is that the conditional sometimes over- laps the subjunctive and that the literal sense of olsa gerek is `necessary it be'. Thus we might explain ne yapsam? (#10) as synonymous with ne yapayim? XXI. ASYNDETIC SUBORDINATION Just as co-ordination can be expressed asyndetically, i.e. with no conjunction (cf. XIII, 1), so subordination may be expressed with no visible subordinating link. (a) With verbs of thinking and perceiving: vagonu doldu sanarak baSka yere g:decekler (ReSat Nuri) `thinking the com- partment full, they will go elsewhere'. sanmak `to think' regularly has two objects, e.g. sen: arkadaS saniyordum `I used to think you friend'. The second object here is the finite verb doldu `has become full'. z:hn: gayr::ht:yari= b:r hayal yapti; b:r la=hza yumurcaGi yataGinda sapsari yatiyor g0rdU (idem) `her mind involuntarily created a vision; for an instant she saw the awful child lying deathly pale in his bed'. The common locution s:z: g:tt: m: b:ld: is puzzling unless one remembers that b:lmek means not only `to know' but also `to consider, to guess': `he wondered whether you had gone', lit. `he considered you ``has he gone?''' Note that the verb of the subordinate clause is in the third person, although a second person is being addressed, as in this example: ben sen: 0ldU b:l:yordum `I was thinking you were dead' (`I was considering you ``he has died'''). The subordinate verb may be in the first or second person and the pronoun object can then be omitted: memleket ger:, d:yoruz; ve memleket: ger: bulduGumuzu aCikla- makla, :ler: olduGumuzu :sbat ett:k zanned:yoruz `we say ``the country is backward'' and, by making it clear that we find the country backward, we think we have proved that we are advanced'. This is a neat and euphonious alternative to ... :ler: olduGumuzu :sbat ett:G:m:z: zanned:yoruz. S:md: ona ne s0ylUyordur b:l:yor musun? (Y. Kemal) `do you know what he must be telling him now?' A more literary way of saying this is S:md: ona ne s0yl:yeceG:n: b:l:yor musun? `do you know what he will be telling him now?' bana ne oldu hiC sormaymiz `don't ask what has happened to me'. b:r de bak- tim, son duraGa gelm:S:z `I gave a look, we have arrived, I realized, at the last stop'. To assume an ellipsis of k: in this last example is natural for English-speakers, who feel that `I saw we had arrived' is short for `I saw that we had arrived'. But, as we have seen in XIII, 15, k: is not an essential element of such sentences. Besides the verbs already mentioned, the construction is found with saymak and addetmek `to count', farzetmek `to suppose', and duymak and h:ssetmek `to feel'. (b) With expressions of time formed with -d:r and ol-. To the examples given in XII, 23 may be added: :k: defa-dir muhac:r olduk `it is twice we have been exiles'; o gUn bugUn-dUr devam eder `it has been going on like that ever since', lit. `that day is today it continues'; yazarin da gUnler: olur, kalem:n- den bal akar `the writer too has days honey flows from his pen'; b:r gUn gelecek, ben: unutacaksin `a day will come you will forget me'. (c) b:r kiyamett:r koptu, etc. See VIII, 43. (d) s0ylen:r durur, etc., and isinamadim g:tt:, etc. See XI, 35 (a) and (h)` (e) Conditional sentences with a question or an imperative as protasis. See XX, 2 (b) and (d). :nsan CaliSti mi her Sey: baSarir `if one works one accomplishes everything', lit. `has man worked? he accomplishes everything'. yapma, 0ldUrUrUm sen: `stop it, I'll murder you'. In translating, we provide a subordinat- ing link by inserting respectively `in that case' and `or', but the subordination is clear to a Turk without any such device. It is debatable whether to include under this heading the use of the subjunctive past in unfulfilled conditionals, e.g. b:leyd:m buraya kadar gelmezd:m `had I known, I should not have come thus far'. On the whole it seems best to call it an instance of asyndetic subordination, as this explains how the use arose, whereas the stock explanation, that in such sentences the sub- junctive past is synonymous with the conditional past, explains nothing. XXII. PUNCTUATION There is no general agreement among Turkish writers or printers on how to punctuate and the reader must be prepared for any- thing. The advice given in the Introduction to OTD is not without its occasional value: `If you are completely bewildered by some sentence, try cutting out all the punctuation marks and often you will find it quite easy to translate.' One cannot, how- ever, afford to ignore a comma near the beginning of a sentence, which usually indicates the subject: bu Bakanin kararidir `it is this Minister's decision'; bu, Bakanin kararidir `this is the Minister's decision'. Un:vers:tel: kizi kaCirdi `he abducted the girl undergraduate'; Un:vers:tel:, kizi kaCirdi `the under- graduate abducted the girl'. The semicolon is rare; the reader may have noticed how often the translation of an example uses a semicolon where the original has a comma. A colon, even when it does not introduce direct speech, may be followed by a capital letter: KariSik b:r duygu var :C:mde : Bu yil bana hem pek kisa, hem de pek uzun gel:yor (N. AtaC) `I have a mixed feeling inside me: I am finding this year both very short and very long'. B:r gUn evvel kurduGu kapana bakti : Kapan nasil biraktiysa 0yle duruyordu `He looked at the trap he had set a day earlier: the trap was standing just as he had left '- Quotation marks are entirely dispensed with by some writers: N:C:n d:yeceG:m gel:yor (S. Kocag0z) `I feel like saying ``Why?'''. Some use a dash and quotation marks or a dash alone to mark a change of speaker in a dialogue: --O+yleyse sorumlu k:m? d:ye baGirdim. G0zler: g0zler:mde, --Sorumlu dUzen, bUtUn suC dUzen:n ... ded: (A. Nesin) ```In that case, who is responsible?'' I cried. His eyes on mine, he said, ``The one responsible is the system; all the fault lies with the system'''. See also the last example in the first paragraph of XIX, 2, where each speaker's words are introduced but not closed by quotation marks. The word of saying, etc., may be written with a capital letter: Babamin ben: d:nlemes: la=zim ... Dey:p duruyordu. ```My father must listen to me'', he kept saying'. Cf. D:ye in the next example. In Ottoman printing, brackets were used round quotations and words especially emphasized. Relics of this practice may still be encountered: I+ler: g:den de yok. Tramvayda: D:ye yazili olmasina raGmen (B. Felek) `Nor is there anyone going forward, in spite of the fact that there is a notice in the tram reading ``Passengers are requested to go forward''' (`in spite of its being written saying ...'). Z:yaretC:ler, heyet mensuplarindan b:r:n:n dey:m: :le (utanC ver:c:) b:r kabul g0rmUSlerd:r `The visitors, in the words of one of the members of the group, had a ``shameful'' reception'. The use of three dots, to indicate that something has been left to the imagination, is very common, especially after a final k:: N:C:n cevap verm:yorsun?--B:rSey sormadin k: ... `Why don't you answer?'--`You haven't asked anything '. The question mark is often omitted after rhetorical questions or replaced by an exclamation point: C+ocuk cop :le d0vUlUr mU! `Does one beat a child with a truncheon?' It may be omitted after polite requests couched in question-form: B:r su lu=tfeder m:s:n:z `Will you be so kind as to let me have a glass of water?' Question marks and exclamation points, in or out of brackets, are used to indicate irony, presumably by those who do not trust their readers to detect it unaided. akrabam olacak o zat-i ser:f:n? bana etmed:G: kalmadi `there is nothing which that honourable gentleman who is supposed to be my kinsman has not done to me'. her yazdiGi cUmlede :k: UC hata yapan bUyUk a=l:m (!) S:md: ne d:yor? `what is the great scholar, who makes two or three mistakes in every sentence he writes, saying now?' Names of months and days are generally written with a small letter and not a capital. XXIII. SENTENCE-ANALYSIS The present chapter is devoted to a word-by-word demonstration of how one sets about translating a complicated sentence. The great difficulty is not so much that the Turkish verb usually comes at the end. It is that as the Turkish qualifier precedes whereas the English qualifier generally follows, a native English- speaker has virtually to read the Turkish sentence backwards. One important reservation must, however, be made. When the author has used side by side several words or clauses of the same grammatical function, whether or not they are joined by a con- junction they must be translated in the order in which he wrote them and not backwards, i.e. not in the order in which one meets them as one works back from the verb. The two specimen sentences are both somewhat longer than the modern norm. The first, which is from I+. H. DaniSmend's I+zahli Osmanli Tarihi Kronolojisi (Istanbul, 1947-1955), ii. 183, also exceeds the modern norm in its proportion of Arabic words. Muazzam b:r devlet:n fak:r, zayif ve muhtaC b:r m:llete b:r takim s:yasi= ve askeri= mU-la=hazalarla sadaka Sekl:nde verm:S olduGu bu mUsa=adeler:n :st:kla=l mefhumunu :hla=l eden b:rer s:yasi= :mt:yaz mah:yet:n: almasi, Osmanli :mparatorluGunun :nh:tat devr:nde kuvvetlenm:S olan Avrupa devletler:n:n bu esk: mUsa=adeler: g:tt:kCe su=::st: ma=l etmeler:nden mUtevell:t ve b:lhassa son dev:rlere mUnhasir b:r vaz:yett:r. In a sentence of some length one can generally rely on the author's putting a comma after the subject. The first comma is after fak:r `poor', which is indeed in the absolute case. But if this is the subject the preceding words must qualify it; being in the genitive case, however, they can only qualify in izafet, i.e. they can only qualify a word with the third-person suffix. Moreover, as the three words after the comma mean `weak and needy', they clearly belong with fak:r as qualifiers of b:r m:llete. The next comma is after almasi, which is also in the absolute case, so we shall assume that this is the subject and that everything preceding qualifies it. alma-si `its taking' is the second element of an izafet, the first element of which cannot be mah:yet:n: as that is in the accusative; the izafet must be a definite one and we have to find its defining genitive. The nearest preceding genitive is bu mUsa=adeler-:n `these concessions'. So far we have `these con- cessions' taking', i.e. `the fact that these concessions take', and the object of `take' is mah:yet-:-n: immediately preceding it: `its nature'. This is the second element of an izafet of which :mt:yaz `privilege' is the qualifier. It is itself qualified by b:rer s:yasi= `each-one-a political ':`the nature of so many political privileges'. The four preceding words must also qualify :mt:yaz: :hla=l ed-en `which violate' / :st:kla=l mefhum-u-nu `the con- cept of independence'. Now we fit together the izafet muazzam b:r devlet-:n `a mighty State's / olduG-u `pertaining to it' ---- being' / verm:S `having-given'; i.e. `which a mighty State had given' / sadaka Sekl-:-nde `in the form of charity' / -la `with' / b:r takim ... mUla=hazalar `a number of political and military considerations' / fak:r ... b:r m:llet-e `to a poor, weak, and needy nation'. So much for the subject. Now we look at the end of the sentence for the verb: -t:r `is'. Its complement is b:r vaz:yet `a situation'. The remainder of the sentence qualifies this word. mUnhasir `confined' / son dev:rler-e `to the latest periods' / etme-ler:-nden `from their doing' / su=::st:ma=l `abuse'; i.e. `from their abusing' / whose abusing? Avrupa devleter-:-n:n `the european States'' / kuvvetlenm:S olan `which had grown strong' / Osmanli ... devr-:-nde `in the Ottoman Empire's period of decline'. All we need now is an object for `abusing': bu esk: mUsa=adeler-: `these ancient concessions' / g:tt:kCe `gradually'. `The fact that these concessions, granted by a mighty State as charity to a poor, weak, and needy nation in view of a number of political and military considerations, assumed the character of political privileges which violated the concept of independence is a situation born of the gradual abuse of these ancient concessions by the European powers, which had grown strong during the Ottoman Empire's period of decline; a situation peculiar to the latest times.' The second specimen is from Niyazi Berkes's 200 Yildir Neden Bocalsyoruz (Istanbul, 1965), pp. 129-30. TUrk:yede devletC:l:k programinin uygulaniliSina g:r:S- :l:rken, pla=nlamanin yalniz sanay: alanina teks:f ed:lmes:, toprak hukuku reformunun 0nlenmes:, sanay:leSme :ler- led:kCe bunun tarimsal mak:neleSmeye hem tekn:k hem ekonom:k sebeple tes:r edememes: tarim alaninin pla=n- lama diSinda ayri bakanliklarin sUrekl: olmayan, Cok defa b:rb:r:n: tutmayan gel:S: gUzel tedb:rler:ne birakilmasi, 0zell:kle eG:t:m alani :le tarim alani arasinda h:Cb:r pla=nli :l:S:kl:k kurulmamasi, okuma-yazma 0Gretmekle k0ylUnUn kalkinacaGina :nanilmasi, ve en sonunda da sank: Cok kahramanca b:r :S :m:S g:b: k0ylUye mUka=fat tevz: eder g:b:, toprak daGitma g:b: s0zde-reformlara gid:lmes: devletC:l:G:n baSarisizliGa uGratilmasinda baS- lica roller: oynamiStir. We may leave aside for the moment the first clause, ending in -ken `while', as it is obviously an adverbial clause of time, and concentrate on the main sentence. A rapid glance shows seven -me verbal nouns with the third- person suffix but no case-ending, five of them followed by a comma (the omission of commas after edememes: and g:d:lmes: must be accidental). These verbal nouns we may take to be the subjects of the final verb oynamiStir `has played', or rather, as there are several subjects, `have played' / baSlica roller: `the principal roles' / devletC:l:G-:n uGratilma-si-nda `in e=*tatism's being brought' / baSarisizliG-a `to successlessness'. Now we deal with the seven noun-clauses. pla=nlama-nin teks:f ed:l-me-s: `planning's being condensed' / yalniz sanay: alan-i-na `only to the sphere of industry'. Then comes a four-word izafet chain: toprak hukuk-u reform-u-nun 0nlenme-s: `land-law-reform's being-prevented'. sanay:leSme :lerled:kCe `as industrialization advanced' / bu-nun tes:r ed-eme-me-s: `its inability to af- fect' / tarimsal mak:neleSme-ye `agricultural mechanization' (tes:r etmek `to affect' is construed with a dative) / sebep-le `by reason' / hem tekn:k hem ekonom:k `both technical and economic'. tarim alan-i-nin birakilma-si `the agricultural sphere's being-left' / pla=nlama diSinda `on the outside of planning' / ayri bakanliklar-in gel:S: gUzel tedb:rler-:-ne `to the haphazard measures of different ministries'. sUrekl: olmayan and Cok defa b:rb:r:n: tutmayan both end in present participles and amount to relative clauses qualifying tedb:rler:ne : `which were not continuous and which often did not hold each other', i.e. which were often mutually conflicting. h:Cb:r pla=nli :l:S:kl:k kurul-ma-ma-si `no planned relationship's being- established'; the izafet is indefinite as the qualifier, being negated, cannot be definite. 0zell:kle ... arasinda `especially between the sphere of education and the sphere of agriculture'. I+nan-il- ma-si `its being believed'; the passive is impersonal, as :nanmak `to believe' is construed with a dative and cannot be made into a true passive. The -si has no visible antecedent and its presence is clearly due, at least in part, to analogy with the five preceding verbal nouns which are in izafet with qualifiers. The dative required by :nan- is k0ylU-nUn kalkinacaG-i-na `the villager's future progressing': `the belief that the villager would progress' / okuma-yazma 0Gretmek-le `by teaching reading-writing'. ve en sonunda da `and at the most last of it' / g:d-:l-me-s: `going's being done', another impersonal passive, which we may paraphrase by `having recourse' / s0zde-reformlar-a `to re- forms in word', i.e. `to so-called reforms' (the hyphen is not strictly necessary but is probably intended to make s0zde a sort of prefix, corresponding to `pseudo-'). toprak daGitma g:b: `such as distributing land' / sank: ... :m:S g:b: `as if it were a very heroic action' / k0ylUye ... eder g:b: `as if distributing largess to the villager'. Now the first clause. The verb g:r:Smek `to enter upon' is another of those which take a dative, so the passive g:r:S-:l- is impersonal. `In Turkey, while one was enter- ing upon' / devletC:l:k program-i-nin uygulan-il-iS-i-na `the e=*tatism-programme's being-applied'. It is probably best to break up this huge structure when translating into English. `The following factors, which existed when the programme of e=*tatism was being put into effect in Turkey, were largely responsible for the failure of e=*tatism. (a) Planning was confined to the sphere of industry. (b) The reform of the land-law was prevented. (c) As industrialization advanced, the less was it able, for technical as well as economic reasons, to affect agricultural mechanization. (d) The sphere of agriculture was left outside the scope of planning and abandoned to the haphazard measures taken by several ministries; measures which were discontinuous and often in conflict with each other. (e) No planned relationship was set up, in particular between education and agriculture. (f) There was a belief that the advancement of the peasant could be achieved by teaching him to read and write. (g) Recourse was had to such pseudo-reforms as land-distribution, as though this were a piece of great magnanimity; as if bestowing largess on the peasantry.' XXIV. FURTHER EXAMPLES The sentences below are intended to provide supplementary illustrations of various points of grammar. 1. Baraj'da toplanacaGi hesaplanan 15 m:lyar metrekUp su :le, kurak b0lge rahatCa sulanab:lecekt:r `with the 15 thousand million cubic metres of water which, it is calculated, will be collected at the dam, it will be possible for the dry zone to be irrigated quite easily'. toplanacaGi hesaplanan su `the water whose future collecting is being calculated'. See XVIII, 2 (c). 2. U+CU yumurtliyan on b:r tavuGu var `he has eleven hens, three of them laying'. 3. Solcu p:yes saGci p:yes d:ye b:r ayirim yapmak, 0mUr- ler:nde kaC defa t:yatroya g:tt:kler: meraka deGer bu sayin Uyeler:n hadd: deG:ld:r `to make a distinction between ``leftist plays'' and ``rightist plays'' is not the place of these honourable members, concerning whom one may well wonder how many times in their lives they have ever been to the theatre'. kaC defa ... g:tt:kler: merak-a deGer `their having gone how many times worthy of curiosity'. 4. Karisinin evler:ne siGindiGi :k: kadini 0ldUren adam tevk:f ed:lm:St:r `the man who killed the two women in whose house his wife had taken refuge has been arrested'; lit. `the two women pertaining to his wife's taking refuge in their house'. 5. I+k: hemSer: olduGu s0zler:nden anlaSilan :k: hamlaci (Sait Faik) `two chief rowers, from whose speech it was evident that they were two fellow-townsmen'; ... olduGu s0zler:nden anlaSilan `their-being ... being-understood from their words'. 6. S+ayet g0rUrsem el:n: 0peceG:m b:r okuyucu, b:r mektup yazdi bana `a reader, whose hand I shall kiss if I see him, has written me a letter'. 7. Sen de t:caret m: yapiyorsun, del:kanli?--Neden yapmiyacakmiSim? `Do you engage in commerce too, young man?'--`Why shouldn't I?' yap-mi-y-acak-miS-im is the inferential form of yapmiyacaktim `I should not', and the literal meaning of the question is `why is it inferred that I should not?' 8. Kiz, Sansin varmiS ... Ya bu her:fle evlenseym:Ss:n ... --Allah korumuS (Aziz Nesin). `Daughter, it is to be inferred that you were lucky (Sans-in `'your luck'' var ``existent'' -miS ``I gather that it was''). And what if--I see it all now--you had married this scoundrel !' (the words in dashes in this last sentence represent the difference between the conditional inferential evlen-se-y-miS-s:n and the conditional past evlen- se-y-d:n)--`God protected me, I now realize' (the last three words of the translation would have been unnecessary had she said koru-du instead of koru-muS)- 9. GeCm:S olsun, ev:n:ze hirsiz g:rm:S.--G:rd:, ded:m (idem). ```I hope you soon get over it; I hear your house has been burgled.''--``It has indeed'', I said.' Lit. ```May it be past; thieves, I gather, have entered your house.''--``They have in fact entered'', I said.' 10. Hanim Sof0rler:m:z :ft:har ets:nler, yalniz TUrk erkekler:nden deG:l, BelC:kali Sof0rler:nden de :ht:yatli vasita kullaniyorlar. Daha doGrusu kullaniyorlarmiS. `Let our lady drivers take pride; they drive (``use vehicles'') not only more carefully than Turkish men, but also more carefully than Belgian drivers. To be more accurate, they are said to do so.' 11. Esk: b:r nah:ye mUdUrU (k: orada kalsa :m:S S:md: val: olab:l:rm:S) kend:n: s:nemaya verm:S (DoGan Nadi). `A former regional director (who, if he had stayed there, it is said (:m:S), could now have been a provincial governor, it is said, (-m:S)) is said to have dedicated himself to the cinema.' 12. GUya (sic, for gu=ya), sen, CikardiGin Kadro mecmuasinda :kt:sadi= s:yaset:m:z: baltalayan ve hatta= Part: Umum: Ka=t:b:n:n :dd:asina g0re Rej:m':n temeller:n: sarsan (!) neSr:yatta bulunuyormuSsun. Bu, b0yle g:derseym:S T:caret Vek:l: tuttuGu yolda emn:yetle :lerleyemezmiS. O+te yandan Cumhur:yet Halk Part:s: de h:z:pleSmek tehl:keler:ne maruz kalirmiS (Yakup Kadri). `Allegedly, you, in the magazine Kadro which you put out, have been engaging in publication which sabotages our economic policy and even, accord- ing to the assertion of the Party General Secretary, shakes the foundations of the re=*gime. If this were to go on like this, they say, the Minister of Commerce would not be able to proceed safely on the road he has taken. Furthermore, the RPP would, they say, be left exposed to risks of breaking up into factions.' 13. DokunmuSlar; ded: ve g:tt:kCe aGirlaSan b:r sesle :la=ve ett: : DokunmuSlar deG:l dokundular; ben:m g0z- UmUn 0nUnde ... (idem). ```I heard they assaulted '', he said and added, in a voice which grew gradually heavier, ``No, I didn't hear it; they actually did it, in front of my eyes'''. 14. Ama bUtUn bu gerCeklere :nat, sanati paranin, mav:y: karanin UstUne Cikaranlar var ya? B:nde b:r de olsun var ya? I+Ste onlar sanatCi; Ust tarafi manatCi! C+ok mu sert oldu bu yargi? YumuSatalim b:raz : bUtUn manatCilarin sanatCi olduGu zamanlar vardir (EyUboGlu). `But despite all these truths, there are, are there not, those who put art above money, the blue above the black (XVII, 3)? They exist, even though they be one in a thousand, don't they? It is precisely these who are artists; the remainder are etceteras! Has it been very stern, this judgement? Let's soften it a little: there are times when all the etceteras become artists.' Here manatCi has been extracted from the m-doublet sanatCi manatCi `artists and so on' and given an independent life of its own. 15. Ama devletl:ler b:r kuSkulanmiya g0rsun (XI, 35 (d)), en merhametl:ler en zal:mler b:r anda b:rleS:yor, d:n kardeS: m:n kardeS: d:nlem:yorlardi (idem). `But let the Establishment not grow suspicious; the most compassionate and the most tyrannical would unite in an instant and would not heed any considerations of common religion or common anything else' (`they would not listen to ``religion-brother'' or ``anything-else- of-the-sort-brother'' '; d:n m:n). 16. B:zde eleSt:r: olup olmadiGi yillardir tartiSilip durur. Varilan sonuC, b:zde eleSt:r: olmadiGidir. `Whether or not we have any literary criticism has been constantly debated (XI, 35 (a)) for years. The conclusion that has been reached is that we have no literary criticism.' varmak `to arrive' is intransitive; varilan is therefore the impersonal passive participle; see XVIII, 3 (a). 17. Bazi gUnler, Cafe=* Soufflot'nun mutad toplantilarina Sam: PaSazade Seza: Bey ve Prens Mehmet Al: g:b:-- Ragip Bey:n tab:r:nce--ar:stokratlarin da :St:rak ett:G: olurdu. `On some days it would happen that--to use Ragip Bey's expression--aristocrats too like Sezai Bey, the son of Sami Pasha, and Prince Mehmet Ali, would join in the usual meetings at the Cafe=* Soufflot.' :St:rak ett:G: `their participating' / olurdu `used to occur'. 18. Haci olan b:r MUslUman sosyal hayatini nasil tanz:m etmel:d:r?--I+sla=m:yet ``hUsn-U ahla=k'' olduGuna g0re haci olup olmamakliGin buna b:r tes:r: yoktur. This is a reader's question and a newspaper columnist's answer (Refik Ulunay). Its grammatical interest lies in the use of the somewhat rare verbal noun in -mekl:k (see X, 6). There could have been no possibility of ambiguity, as the verbal noun is negative and in the genitive, if the writer had chosen to use the -me verbal noun instead: olmamanin. But clearly he wished to be both precise and impressive, hence olmamakliGin `of the fact of not being'. `How ought a Muslim who is a pilgrim to arrange his social life?'-- `As Islam is moral excellence (II, 26), the fact of being or not being a pilgrim has no effect on this.' 19. Ey Allahim, bUtUn :nsanlara, onlarin sen:n Cocuklarin ve b:rb:rler:n:n kardeS: olduklarini 0Gretmen zamani gelmed: m:? (Halide Edip). `O God, has not the time come for You to teach all mankind that they are Your children and each other's brothers?' The termination of Cocuklar-in is not the genitive suffix but the second-singular possessive. Probably a writer of a later generation would have chosen an alternative to 0Gretme-n `your teaching', because of the far commoner 0Gretmen `teacher'. 20. I+smet PaSanin S:md:ye kadar olmaz ded:G:n:n, oldu- Gunu b:len varsa parmak kaldirsin! `Hands up anyone who knows of anything ever yet happening which Ismet Pasha said wouldn't happen!' Lit. `if there is anyone who knows the happen- ing of that pertaining to Ismet Pasha's saying ``It won't happen'' (olmaz) till now, let him raise finger'. 21. BayramlaSamadiklarimiz. `Those of our number with whom we cannot exchange the season's greetings.' This splendid word headed the obituary column of a newspaper at the Bayram, the festival which ends the month of fasting, in 1960. Bayram- laS- `to exchange Bayram greetings'; -ama- VIII, 55 (b); -diklarimiz IX, 7. 22. Daha sonra Hazret: Muhammed:n Med:neye :lk ayak bastiGi gUn deves:n:n kapisinda d:z C0ktUGU EyUp Sultanin tUrbes: z:yaret ed:ld:. `Later a visit was paid to the mausoleum of EyUp Sultan, at whose door the Prophet Muhammad's camel knelt the first day he set foot in Medina.' This is an involved example of the rule given in XVIII, 2 (d): `EyUp Sultan, charac- terized-by-its-bending knee' (d:z C0ktUGU) `at-his-door' (kapi- sinda). The `its' refers to Hazret: Muhammed:n deves:n:n `His Excellency Muhammad's camel's'. Hazret (A) means -Presence' and is used in Persian izafet as an honorific. 23. Bu konuda yayimlanan deGerl: b:r makalede, S+:nas:'- n:n p:yes yazmasi, ``Fransiz t:yatrosunu yakindan g0rUp tanidiktan sonra Garp t:yatrosunun edebi= deGer:n: :y:ce kavramiS olmasi'' :le yorumlanmiS, ve, eser:n: ``oynatma Um:d: olmaksizin yazdi''Gi s0ylenm:St:r (Cevdet Kudret). `In a valuable article published on this theme, Shinasi's writing of plays has been interpreted by ``his having thoroughly grasped the literary value of the Western theatre after seeing and becoming acquainted with the French theatre from close at hand'' and it has been said that ``he wrote with no hope of producing'' his play.' This sentence is remarkable for a grammatical oddity not unlike the one discussed on p. 49, n. 3. The quotation oynatma Um:d: olmaksizin yazdi `he wrote without there being hope of getting-performed' has been turned into a noun clause, subject of s0ylenm:St:r, by adding Gi to the finite verb yazdi, instead of closing the quotation at olmaksizin and then putting yazdiGi. This is not a unique example of this use. 24. G0rUlUyor k:, verd:G:m:z 0rneklerde ve veremed:G:m:z b:nlerces:nde, d:l mantiGi kolaylik ve sUrat: saGlamak :C:n, kend: kanunlarina aykiri da olsa bazi tasarruflara g:tmekted:r. `It is seen, in the examples we have given and the thousands that we have not been able to give, that the logic of language, in order to ensure ease and speed, resorts to certain economies, even though they be contrary to its own laws.' Note- worthy here is the substantivizing effect of the third-person suffix on the adverb b:nlerce `by thousands'. 25. DUn K0prUden geCerken Fat:h cam::n:n m:nares:ne [MISSING LINE] yerleS:rse Demokrat Part: zamaninda yerleSm:St:r d:ye tar:h k:taplari yazsin :C:n, ben de buraya yaziyorum. (B. Felek). `Yesterday while crossing the Bridge I saw that flags had been hoisted on the minaret of the Fatih mosque. I am writing here so that if this custom too takes root, tomorrow or the next day, the history-books may write that it took root in the Democrat Party era.' The rare use of :C:n with a third-person imperative to express purpose (VIII, 41) is doubtless to avoid repeating d:ye; yazsin d:ye would have been the natural way of saying `so that they may write'. 26. Kirik Al:--MUsaaden olursa kalkalim hoca efend:, b:ze :z:n ver! ded:. Vara dem:yeyd:. Bek:r Hocadir bu, yaka- sina b:r yapiSmas:yle Kirik Al:'y: sandalyeye C0kertt: (Aziz Nesin). `Broken Ali said, ``With your permission (lit. `if your permission exists'), Hoja Efendi, let's go; give us leave!'' He might as well not have said it (VIII, 37 (a), at end). It was Bek:r Hoja that he had to deal with (p. 71, foot); with one grab at his collar he sent Broken Ali flopping back into the chair,' 27. EGer 0Grenc: b:r sorunun beS Sikkindan b:r:n: :Saretl:-` yecekken :k: Sikki doGru d:ye :Saretlem:Sse, elektron:k bey:n oyuna gelmey:p hemen bunu farketmekte ve 0Gren- c:n:n kurnazlik yaptiGini ortaya koymaktadir. `If the student, while supposed to mark one of the five alternatives (i.e, alternative answers) of a question, has marked two alternatives as correct, the electronic brain is not taken in but notices this at once and reveals that the student is guilty of sharp practice.' Note the necessitative sense of the future participle in :Saretl:-y- ecek-ken, not `while he will mark' but `while he should mark'. See the first sentence of VIII, 21, and cf. the next example. 28. Tavuklar en yumurtalayacaklari zamanda yumurtala- mayiverd:ler. `The hens, at the time when thy should most have laid, suddenly stopped laying.' See XI, 35 (f). 29. Ben:m de gUlmUSlUGUm vardir AtatUrk'Un kullandiGi b:r Cok ter:mlere (EyUboGlu). `There have been times when I too have laughed at a number of terms which AtatUrk used.' For the construction, see XVII, 2, and cf. the next example. 30. Bu seC:m:n bUtUn problemler: C0zmUSlUGU :ler: sUrUlemez. `It cannot be suggested that this election has solved all the problems.' Lit. `this election's state-of-having-solved all the problems cannot-be-pushed forward'. 31. Proje gerCekleSseyd: hak:katen TUrklere dUSecek pay ancak bu ruhani= pay olacakti ; maddi= payi varsin maddeye tapan ga=vurlara kalsindi (Niyazi Berkes). `If the project were to materialize, in fact the share that would fall to the Turks would be only this spiritual share; the material share of it might as well be left to the infidels, who worshipped the material.' 32. A=deta kalin b:r yaGmur bulutu :C:ne g:rd:k ve etrafi deG:l, g:tt:G:m:z yolu g0remez olduk (R. N. GUntekin). `We entered what was virtually a dense rain-cloud and ceased to be able to see not our surroundings but the road on which we were going.' For g0remez olduk `we-became unable- to-see', see IX, II.